American Revolutionary War
In May of 1778, after the British disaster of the Saratoga Campaign, Clinton replaced Howe as Commander-in-Chief for North America. He assumed command in Philadelphia. France had by this time overtly entered the war on the American side, and because of this Clinton was ordered by his government to send 5,000 of his troops to the Caribbean, which forced him to withdraw from Philadelphia. He conducted a skillful retreat thence to New York. Having thus concentrated his forces, for a time he pursued a policy of making mere forays from there. Before the year's end, though, he regained the initiative for the British by sending an expedition south, to strike at Georgia. This force took Savannah in December, and by early 1779 it had gained control of the hinterland.
In 1782, Clinton was replaced as Commander-in-Chief by Sir Guy Carleton, and he returned to England. His replacement is linked to the fate of the southern army, which was surrounded and forced to surrender by George Washington and the Comte de Rochambeau, who commanded a combined French-American Army after the Siege of Yorktown.
Letters from General Sir Henry Clinton during the American War of Independence can be found in the political papers of his cousin, Henry Pelham-Clinton, in the Newcastle (Clumber) Collection held at Manuscripts and Special Collections, The University of Nottingham.

Commander in Chief
Sir Henry Clinton held the command in America for four years, ending in disaster and defeat; his name was forever to be linked with the downfall of British control of the colonies. Historians have since shifted more blame onto Cornwallis.

Evaluations
Clinton was re-elected to Parliament in 1790, and he was promoted to full General in October 1793. The following July he was appointed Governor of Gibraltar, but he died in Cornwall, England before assuming that post.
Henry Clinton had two sons who continued the family tradition of high command: General Sir William Henry Clinton (1769–1846), and Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Clinton K.B. (1771–1829).

Notes

Borick, C: A Gallant Defense: The Siege of Charleston, 1780. (2003)
Bicheno, H: Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolutionary War, London, 2003
Hyma, A : Sir Henry Clinton and the American Revolution. (1957)
Mackesy, P: War for America: 1775-1783. (1992), online edition
McCullough, D: 1776. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-7432-2671-2 (2005).
McEvedy, C: The Penguin Atlas of North American History to 1870. (1988). ISBN 0-14-051128-8.
Willcox, W: Portrait of a General. Sir Henry Clinton in the War of Independence. (1964)
Buchanan, J: The Road to Guilford Courthouse: The American Revolution and the Carolinas, New York, 1997
Clement, R: "The World Turned Upside down At the Surrender of Yorktown", Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 92, No. 363 (Jan. - Mar., 1979), pp. 66-67
Ferling, J: The World Turned Upside Down: The American Victory in the War of Independence, London, 1988
Harvey, R:A Few Bloody Noses: The American War of Independence, London, 2001
Hibbert, C: Rebels and Redcoats: The American Revolution Through British Eyes, London, 2001
Peckham, H:The War for Independence, A Military History, Chicago, 1967
Weintraub, S: Iron Tears, Rebellion in America 1775-1783, London, 2005

Themes
See also: Homosexuality and psychology#Declassification
This particular charge dates back to Plato, who argued in the Laws I 636c and VIII 841d that homosexual sex was "against nature" (para phusin). This argument was echoed in the writings of Paul of Tarsus, in a claim to the same effect in the Epistle to the Romans. In recent times the discussion has been framed in psychiatric rather than philosophical terms, with the claim that it is a sexual perversion.
Though the psychiatric establishment once medicalized same-sex desire, homosexuality was later removed as a mental disorder from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) because the diagnosis of homosexuality as mental illness stigmatized homosexuals. There has been significant controversy over this DSM argument.

Declaration that same-sex desire is unnatural

Main article: Religion and homosexuality Blame for Biblical plagues and natural disasters
See also: Gay rights counter-movement
This is an accusation which predates the current era, as it was leveled against pederasts even during Antiquity. More recently, this charge has been phrased as "homosexual recruitment", implying that homosexuals are somehow predatory toward children, or are "recruiting" in secret. A common slogan is "Homosexuals cannot reproduce — so they must recruit" or its variants. One such example of a similar charge and its underlying argument, offered by the Family Research Council can be found here.
In The Advocate's website, advocate.com, interview on his 2000 work, Outlaw Representation: Censorship and Homosexuality in 20th-Century American Art, Richard Meyer discusses this line of attack:
..those who attacked Mapplethorpe's work in the late 1980s used this photograph to reinforce long-standing stereotypes of gay men as pedophiles. Although no sexual activity is shown (or even suggested) in the portrait, and although the picture was commissioned by the child's mother who was in the room at the time of its taking, the very fact that Mapplethorpe had photographed a naked boy was enough, at least in the minds of Pat Robertson and Jesse Helms, for the photographer to be accused of child molestation.
Current studies contradict the idea that homosexuals are pedophiles. Both national organizations for psychiatry and psychology and the FBI have concluded that 98 percent of all pedophiles are heterosexual men and that the remaining two percent of pedophiles include women and not just homosexuals. Child molestors arrested who were members of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), have been married men predominantly with children who identified as heterosexual.

Conflation with child abuse
This argument has been phrased since antiquity in agricultural terms, as "casting one's seed on sterile rocks."

Dissipation of vital force

Main article: Gender identity Association with effeminacy in men, and masculinity in women

Main article: Religion and homosexuality AIDS as a gay disease

Pro-gay slogans and symbols
Gay rights opposition
Heterosexism
Homophobia
Homosexuality and morality
List of gay-related topics
Hate speech
Fred Phelps

John Raymond Garamendi (born January 24, 1945) is a U.S. politician and a member of the Democratic Party. He became the 46th Lieutenant Governor of California on January 8, 2007. He had previously been the California State Insurance Commissioner from 2003–2007, having previously been the first occupant of that office from 1991–1995. He was the U.S. Deputy Secretary of the Interior from 1995–1998.

Family

2003 California recall

Michaela Tabb (born 11 December 1967 in Bath, England) is the world's leading female snooker and pool referee, and made her World Snooker Championship debut by refereeing a match between Mark King and Drew Henry at the 2003 Crucible event. Tabb was the head referee at the 2006 WPA World Nine-ball Championship, Mosconi Cup, World Cup of Pool, and World Pool Masters Tournament events, and has refereed in some capacity at every Matchroom Sport-sponsored pool event since 1997.
On 18 February 2007, Tabb made history by becoming the first female ever to preside over a world ranking event final at the Welsh Open in Newport, Monmouthshire, between Andrew Higginson and Neil Robertson.
Tabb appeared on BBC show Identity presented by Donny Osmond.

Frederic W. Barnes, an American journalist, author, and conservative political commentator, is the executive editor of the news publication The Weekly Standard, co-host with Mort Kondracke of The Beltway Boys on the Fox News Channel, and also regularly appears on Fox's Special Report with Brit Hume.

Early Life and Journalism Career

Controversial Statements
In reference to the book The Truth About Hillary (Sentinel, June 2005), Barnes claimed that "Republican-hating media ... trashed a perfectly respectable, though highly critical, biography of Hillary" [1].

Hillary Clinton
On July 29, 2006, Barnes denied anthropogenic climate change on Fox News's Beltway Boys. When co-host Mort Kondracke cited recent climate data, Barnes shrugged, saying "so?" Kondracke answered, "[G]lobal warming is a fact." Barnes retorted, "Yeah, but who caused it? You don't know." Kondracke replied, "Humans," Barnes protested: "No! You don't know that." [2]
In Spring of 2007, Barnes appeared as a panelist on Special Report with Brit Hume. In it, he claimed that there was no scientific consensus on global warming since there was a difference in the claims by Al Gore's movie and the United Nations. [3]
He ended his interview saying that there was no evidence that humans were causing global warming, and that he personally like warmer weather:
BARNES: "There is, no, Mort you've been in Tibet for three weeks, believe me, everyday you were gone some new scientist came out and said he didn't believe in the extravagant tales that are told by people like Al Gore. Al Gore—remember the difference between Al Gore and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change of the United Nations, Al Gore says that over the next century sea level rises 20 feet. This panel on climate change says well maybe 17-23-inches, which I think we can live—look, we don't know whether humans are causing this—we don't even know whether global warming's bad. Me, I like warmer weather."
BARNES: There's a man [Al Gore] who has a fever. That's for sure. Look, it is clear now that there is no scientific consensus on global warming, except for one thing: we know the temperature in the globe increased by 1 degree over the last 100 years. And - and scientists are increasingly embarrassed by the wild exaggerations of Al Gore, where he - he says we're going to get a - the sea level will rise 20 feet, and the U.N. group that's looked into this says it'll be 23 inches. You'll have to admit, there's a significant difference there. And - and I think you're going to increasingly see - well, we have seen, in that New York Times story, scientists increasingly ready to go public to repudiate Al Gore. And yet, you know, you find some Al Gore apologist like yourself, Mort.

In mathematics, the concept of a curve tries to capture the intuitive idea of a geometrical one-dimensional and continuous object. A simple example is the circle. In everyday use of the term "curve", a straight line is not curved, but in mathematical parlance curves include straight lines and line segments. A large number of other curves have been studied in geometry.
This article is about the general theory. The term curve is also used in ways making it almost synonymous with mathematical function (as in learning curve), or graph of a function (Phillips curve).

Definitions
The distinction between a curve and its image is important. Two distinct curves may have the same image. For example, a line segment can be traced out at different speeds, or a circle can be traversed a different number of times. Many times, however, we are just interested in the image of the curve. It is important to pay attention to context and convention in reading.
Terminology is also not uniform. Often, topologists use the term "path" for what we are calling a curve, and "curve" for what we are calling the image of a curve. The term "curve" is more common in vector calculus and differential geometry.

Conventions and terminology
Main article: arc length
If X is a metric space with metric d, then we can define the length of a curve
A rectifiable curve is a curve with finite length. A parametrization of is called natural (or unit speed or parametrised by arc length) if for any t₁, t₂ in [a,b], we have
If is a Lipschitz-continuous function, then it is automatically rectifiable. Moreover, in this case, one can define speed of at t₀ as

and then

In particular, if is Euclidean space and differentiable then


Lengths of curves

Main article: differential geometry of curves Differential geometry

Main article: Algebraic curve

In computer science, abstraction is a mechanism and practice to reduce and factor out details so that one can focus on a few concepts at a time.
The following English definition of abstraction helps to understand how this term applies to Computer Science, IT and Objects - i.e. abstraction is:
The concept is by analogy with abstraction in mathematics. The mathematical technique of abstraction begins with mathematical definitions; this has the fortunate effect of finessing some of the vexing philosophical issues of abstraction. For example, in both computing and in mathematics, numbers are concepts in the programming languages, as founded in mathematics. Implementation details depend on the hardware and software, but this is not a restriction because the computing concept of number is still based on the mathematical concept.
Roughly speaking, abstraction can be either that of control or data. Control abstraction is the abstraction of actions while data abstraction is that of data structures. For example, control abstraction in structured programming is the use of subprograms and formatted control flows. Data abstraction is to allow for handling data bits in meaningful manners. For example, it is the basic motivation behind datatype. Object-oriented programming can be seen as an attempt to abstract both data and code.

Rationale

Language features

Main article: Programming language Programming languages

Main article: Specification language Specification languages

Main article: Control flow Control abstraction

Main article: Structured programming Structured programming

Main article: Abstract data type Data abstraction

Main article: Object (computer science) Object-oriented design
When discussing formal semantics of programming languages, formal methods or abstract interpretation, abstraction refers to the act of considering a less accurate, but safe, definition of the observed program behaviors. For instance, one may observe only the final result of program executions instead of considering all the intermediate steps of executions. Abstraction is defined to a concrete (more precise) model of execution.
Abstraction may be exact or faithful with respect to a property if it is possible to answer a question about the property equally well on the concrete or abstract model. For instance, if we wish to know what the result of the evaluation of a mathematical expression involving only integers +, -, ×, is worth modulo n, it is sufficient to perform all operations modulo n (a familiar form of this abstraction is casting out nines).
Abstractions, however, are not necessarily exact, but one requires that they should be sound. That is, it should be possible to get sound answers from them—even though the abstraction may simply yield a result of undecidability. For instance, we may abstract the students in a class by their minimal and maximal ages; if one asks whether a certain person belongs to that class, one may simply compare that person's age with the minimal and maximal ages; if his age lies outside the range, one may safely answer that the person does not belong to the class; if it does not, one may only answer "I don't know".
Abstractions are useful when dealing with computer programs, because non-trivial properties of computer programs are essentially undecidable (see Rice's theorem). As a consequence, automatic methods for deriving information on the behavior of computer programs either have to drop termination (on some occasions, they may fail, crash or never yield out a result), soundness (they may provide false information), or precision (they may answer "I don't know" to some questions).
Abstraction is the core concept of abstract interpretation. Model checking is generally performed on abstract versions of the studied systems.

Considerations

Main article: Abstraction layer Levels of abstraction

Main article: Database management system Database systems
The ability to provide a design of different levels of abstraction can
This can be used in both system and business process design. Some design processes specifically generate designs that contain various levels of abstraction.

simplify the design considerably, and
enable different role players to effectively work at various levels of abstraction. See also
This article was originally based on material from the Free On-line Dictionary of Computing, which is licensed under the GFDL.

Abelson, Harold, Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman. (1996) ISBN 0-262-01153-0 Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs (Second edition). The MIT Press (See [1])
Joel Spolsky. The Law of Leaky Abstractions. 2002-11-11.

Subscribe to: Posts (Atom)