suspendersfetish

jazz

2009-03-24T01:42:00.000-07:00

Jazz is a primarily American musical art form which originated at the beginning of the 20th century in African American communities in the Southern United States from a confluence of African and European music traditions. The style's West African pedigree is evident in its use of blue notes, improvisation, polyrhythms, syncopation, and the swung note.

From its early development until the present, jazz has also incorporated music from 19th and 20th century American popular music. The word jazz began as a West Coast slang term of uncertain derivation and was first used to refer to music in Chicago in about 1915; for the origin and history, see Jazz (word).

Jazz has, from its early 20th century inception, spawned a variety of subgenres, from New Orleans Dixieland dating from the early 1910s, big band-style swing from the 1930s and 1940s, bebop from the mid-1940s, a variety of Latin jazz fusions such as Afro-Cuban and Brazilian jazz from the 1950s and 1960s, jazz-rock fusion from the 1970s and late 1980s developments such as acid jazz, which blended jazz influences into funk and hip-hop. As the music has spread around the world it has drawn on local national and regional musical cultures, its aesthetics being adapted to its varied environments and giving rise to many distinctive styles.

2008-05-02T09:32:00.001-07:00

The IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry is a systematic method of naming inorganic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Ideally, every inorganic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous formula can be determined. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry.
The names "caffeine" and "3,7-dihydro-1,3,7-trimethyl-1H-purine-2,6-dione" both describe the same chemical. The systematic name encodes the structure and composition of the caffeine molecule in some detail, and provides an unambiguous reference to this compound, whereas the name "caffeine" just names it. These advantages make the systematic name far superior to the common name when absolute clarity and precision are required. However, even professional chemists will use the non-systematic name almost all of the time, because caffeine is a well-known common chemical with a unique structure. Similarly, H₂O is most often simply called water in English, though other chemical names do exist.
Positively charged ions are called cations and negatively charged ions are called anions. The cation is always named first. Ions can be metals or polyatomic ions. Therefore the name of the metal or positive polyatomic ion is followed by the name of the non-metal or negative polyatomic ion. The positive ion retains its element name whereas for a single non-metal anion the ending is changed to -ide.
Example: sodium chloride, potassium oxide, or calcium carbonate.
When the metal has more than one possible ionic charge or oxidation number the name becomes ambiguous. In these cases the oxidation number of the metal ion is represented by a Roman numeral in parentheses immediately following the metal ion name. For example in uranium(VI) fluoride the oxidation number of uranium is 6. Another example is the iron oxides. FeO is iron(II) oxide and Fe₂O₃ is iron(III) oxide.
An older system used prefixes and suffixes to indicate the oxidation number, according to the following scheme:
Thus the four oxyacids of chlorine are called hypochlorous acid (HOCl), chlorous acid (HOClO), chloric acid (HOClO₂) and perchloric acid (HOClO₃), and their respective conjugate bases are the hypochlorite, chlorite, chlorate and perchlorate ions. This system has partially fallen out of use, but survives in the common names of many chemical compounds: the modern literature contains few references to "ferric chloride" (instead calling it "iron(III) chloride"), but names like "potassium permanganate" (instead of "potassium manganate(VII)") and "sulfuric acid" abound.

Single atom anions are named with an -ide suffix: for example, H,
The prefix bi- is a deprecated way of indicating the presence of a single hydrogen ion, as in "sodium bicarbonate" (NaHCO₃). The modern method specifically names the hydrogen atom. Thus, NaHCO₃ would be pronounced "sodium hydrogen carbonate". Traditional naming
An ionic compound is named by its cation followed by its anion. See polyatomic ions for a list of possible ions.
For cations that take on multiple charges, the charge is written using Roman numerals in parentheses immediately following the element name) For example, Cu(NO₃)₂ is copper(II) nitrate, because the charge of two nitrate ions (NO₃) is 2 × −1 = −2, and since the net charge of the ionic compound must be zero, the Cu ion has a 2+ charge. This compound is therefore copper(II) nitrate. In the case of cations with a 4+ oxidation state, the acceptable format for the Roman numeral 4 is IV and not IIII.
The Roman numerals in fact show the oxidation number, but in simple ionic compounds (i.e., not metal complexes) this will always equal the ionic charge on the metal. For a simple overview see [1], for more details see selected pages from IUPAC rules for naming inorganic compounds.

Naming simple ionic compounds
Monatomic anions:
Cl permanganate

Naming hydrates
Inorganic molecular compounds are named with a prefix (see list above) before each element. The more electronegative element is written last and with an -ide suffix. For example, CO₂ is carbon dioxide. Although CCl₄ is sometimes called carbon tetrachloride under this rule, it is not an inorganic molecule and is more properly called tetrachloromethane. There are some exceptions to the rule, however. The prefix mono- is not used with the first element; for example, CO₂ is carbon dioxide, not "monocarbon dioxide". Sometimes prefixes are shortened when the ending vowel of the prefix "conflicts" with a starting vowel in the compound. This makes the compound easier to speak; for example, CO is "carbon monoxide" (as opposed to "monooxide").

Naming molecular compounds
Acids are named by the anion they form when dissolved in water. If an acid forms an anion named ___ide, it is named hydro___ic acid. For example, hydrochloric acid forms a chloride anion. Secondly, anions with an -ate suffix are formed when acids with an -ic suffix are dissolved, e.g. chloric acid (HClO₃) dissociates into chlorate anions to form salts such as sodium chlorate (NaClO₃); anions with an -ite suffix are formed when acids with an -ous suffix are dissolved in water, e.g. chlorous acid (HClO₂) disassociates into chlorite anions to form salts such as sodium chlorite (NaClO₂).

Naming acids
With the last revision of the nomenclature, many things changed. Most important is, that there is no absolute right name for one compound anymore. As long as the name describes the compound sufficiently and unambiguously, the name is correct. Old names such as water, carbonyl or cyano are still tolerated. — The "old names" may still have to be understood, but the systematic IUPAC nomenclature is easier to learn (because it is systematic) and always right to use.
There are basically two different ways to describe a compound: compositional and substitutive nomenclature.

2005 revision of IUPAC's nomenclature for inorganic compounds
This ansatz tries to describe how a molecule is constructed from some kind of core, in partial imitation of the system for naming coordination compounds. The core(s) of the molecule is taken to be the atom with the lowest electronegativity (EN) (e.g. in CO, C, with EN=2.5, is taken to be the core, whereas O has EN=3.5). The choice of core element determines the stem name of the compound. If the compound is negatively charged, the name is augmented by a suffix: -ide if no other element is present and -ate otherwise.
Then the surrounding atoms and groups are described in the manner used to describe the ligand portions of coordination compounds. The ligand names are determined similarly to the core name. The suffix -o marks a group as a ligand. Identical groups are named collectively using a counting prefix (i.e. tri-, tetra- or bis-).
After the naming of atoms, designators for charge, radical function, water of crystallization, bridging or multicoordinating ligands are added. Brackets are employed to eliminate ambiguities. Last but not least, the ligand names (if there are distinct ligands) are listed separately in alphabetical order; the alphabetical naming order disregards the counting prefixes.
Cations and anions are treated separately (in that order).
Exemplification:

Substitutive nomenclature

IUPAC nomenclature
IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry
List of inorganic compounds
Water of Crystallization

2008-05-01T09:35:00.001-07:00

Sigrid Undset (May 20, 1882 – June 10, 1949) was a Norwegian novelist who won the Nobel Prize in Literature for 1928.
Undset was born in Kalundborg, Denmark, but her family moved to Norway when she was two years old. In 1924, she converted to Catholicism. She fled Norway for the United States in 1940 because of her opposition to Nazi Germany and the German occupation, but returned after World War II ended in 1945.
Her best-known work is Kristin Lavransdatter, a modernist trilogy about life in Scandinavia in the Middle Ages. The book was set in medieval Norway and was published from 1920 to 1922 in three volumes. Kristin Lavransdatter portrays the life of woman from birth until death. Undset was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for this trilogy as well as her two books about Olav Audunssøn, published in 1925 and 1927.
Undset experimented with modernist tropes such as stream of consciousness in her novel, although the original English translation by Charles Archer excised many of these passages. In 1997, the first volume of Tiina Nunnally's new translation of the work won the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction in the category of translation. The names of each volume were translated by Archer as The Bridal Wreath, The Mistress of Husaby, and The Cross, and by Nunally as The Wreath, The Wife, and The Cross.

Biography
Sigrid Undset was born on 20 May 1882, at Kalundborg, in Denmark, at her mother's handsome childhood home on the market place of the small town. Sigrid was the eldest of the couple's three daughters. She came to Norway at the age of two, when her parents moved on account of her father's illness, which forced him to give up further scientific travel in Europe.
She grew up in Kristiania, the capital (the name was changed back to Oslo in 1925). The first eleven years of her life were strongly influenced by her father's serious illness but also by his extensive historical knowledge. At an early age, Sigrid learnt not only the secrets of archaeology, but also the mysteries of the Norse sagas and Scandinavian folk songs.
Her father died, only 40 years old, when she was 11. Her mother was left to cope single-handedly with three young daughters, on very slim means. This family tragedy left its mark on Sigrid Undset's childhood and adolescence. Her hopes of a university education had to be abandoned. Having passed the intermediate school (Middelskole) examination, she took a 1-year secretarial course, and, at the age of 16, got a job as secretary with a major German-owned engineering company in Kristiania. It was necessary for her to earn money to help her mother and her two younger sisters. She worked with the same company for 10 years as a secretary, gradually assuming a highly trusted position. There were times when she detested office work, feeling she was wasting her time and her youth. But it gave her insight into a major industrial enterprise, taught her how to work systematically, and made her into an expert typist. She later exhibited a considerable talent for organisation, both as housewife and subsequently as chairman of the Society of Norwegian Authors. Furthermore, systematic office routine undoubtedly taught her a good deal about how to proceed with major literary works such as her serial novels.
But the ten years of office work were a torment to Sigrid Undset. Late at night, and during weekends and holidays, she stole the time to write. Sigrid was no more than 16 years old when she made her first hesitant attempt at writing a novel set in the Nordic Middle Ages. For several years, she wrestled with the subject. At the same time, she read a lot, acquiring a thorough knowledge of Nordic as well as foreign literature, English in particular.
She was deeply moved by Shakespeare, enthusiastic about Chaucer, attracted by legends of King Arthur. But she also immersed herself in the work of Scandinavian writers, such as Ibsen, Strindberg, Brandes, and English authors such as the Brontë sisters and Jane Austen. On her own initiative and in her spare time she thus acquired a sound knowledge of the art of writing, preparing herself for what she felt from an early age to be her "fate" in life.
The manuscript of Undset's first novel was ready by the time she was 22. It was the result of burning the midnight oil for many years. It was an historical novel set in the Denmark of the Middle Ages, clearly of the rather romantic type. The manuscript was turned down by the publishing house, and to her this was a devastating blow. All the same, two years later, she had completed another manuscript; much less voluminous this time, only 80 pages. She had put aside the Middle Ages, and had instead produced a realistic description of a woman with a petit-bourgeois background in contemporary Kristiania. The title was Fru Marta Aulie, with an opening sentence which scandalised the readers: I have been unfaithful to my husband. These were the words of the book's main character. This book was also refused at first, but after the intervention of a well-known writer of the time, it was subsequently accepted.
Thus, at the age of 25, Sigrid Undset made her literary debut with a short, realistic novel on adultery, set against a contemporary background. It created a stir, and she found herself ranked as a promising young author in Norway. During the years up to 1919, Undset published a number of novels set in contemporary Kristiania. The 10 years at the office had been lonely and difficult ones, but they had given her a foothold in the world of unimportant, everyday people; those who bravely, if not necessarily heroically, strove to find some happiness in life. Undset was a shy, rather introverted young woman with few personal friends. But she had unusually sharp eyes, she saw people, and she saw through them. Her way of breaking out of her loneliness was to take long strolls in and around Kristiania, both east and west, and she came to know it better than most. Her contemporary novels of the period 1907-1918 include all this -- the city and its insignificant inhabitants, the monotonous boarding-house existence of secretaries in a gloomy town, their longing for a little warmth and love, and their brave, not to say heroic, rejection of seediness. These are the stories of working people, of trivial family destinies, of the relationship between parents and children, written with warmth, but soberly, and completely unsentimentally. Her main subjects are women and their love. Or, as she herself put it -- in her typically curt and ironic manner -- "the immoral kind" (of love).
This realistic period culminated in the novels Jenny in 1911 and Vaaren (Spring) in 1914. The first is about a woman painter who, as a result of romantic crises, believes that she is wasting her life, and in the end commits suicide. The other tells of a woman who succeeds in saving both herself and her love from a serious matrimonial crisis, finally creating a secure family. These books placed Undset more or less clearly apart from the incipient women's emancipation movement in Europe -- perhaps not exactly against it, but on an entirely different level.
Undset's books sold well from the start, and after the publication of her third book, she quit the office job, and prepared to live on her income as a writer. Having been granted a writer's scholarship, she set out on a lengthy journey in Europe. After short stops in Denmark and Germany, she continued to Italy, arriving in Rome in December 1909, where she remained for 9 months.
Undset's parents had had a close relationship with Rome. As a matter of fact, Sigrid should have been born in Rome while her parents lived there in 1882. But just before her birth, her father became suddenly and seriously ill, her parents travelled north in a great hurry to her mother's home at Kalundborg, and that is where Sigrid was born. However, Undset herself very likely felt that her proper place of birth was Rome, and during her stay there in 1909 she followed in her parents' footsteps.
The encounter with Southern Europe meant a great deal to her. She immediately made friends within the circle of Scandinavian artists and writers in Rome, she became more open, and more outgoing and lively in her relations with other people.
In Rome, she met Anders Castus Svarstad, a Norwegian painter, whom she married 2 or 3 years later. She was then 30 and, most likely, he was her first love. Svarstad was nine years older than her, he was married, and had a wife and three children in Norway. Their meeting must have been a case of love at first sight, but it was nearly three years before Svarstad got his divorce.
They were married in 1912, and went to stay in London for 6 months. Svarstad painted, and Undset developed strong ties with English art and letters, which were to be of decisive importance to her for the rest of her life. From London, they returned to Rome, where Sigrid's first child was born in January 1913. It was a boy, and he was named after his father.
Marriage, and the other children who came later, meant a great deal to Sigrid Undset, both as a person and as a woman. But it was a serious dilemma for the creative artist. In the years of marriage up to 1919, she had three children of her own, and a large, busy household to look after; one which also included Svarstad's three children by his first marriage. They were difficult years for Sigrid Undset. Her second child, a girl, was mentally handicapped, and Svarstad's mentally handicapped son also lived with them. She kept an open and busy house for the large family and for old and new friends.
At the same time, she continued writing at night, after the others had gone to bed, finishing her last realistic novels and collections of short stories. She also entered the public debate on the most topical themes: women's emancipation, ethical and moral issues. She had considerable polemical gifts, and was categorically critical of emancipation as it was developing, and of the moral and ethical decline she felt was threatening in the wake of the First World War, which was raging beyond the shores of neutral Norway.
In 1919, she moved to Lillehammer, a small town in the Gudbrandsdalen, a valley in south-east Norway, taking her two children with her. She was expecting her third child. The idea was that she should take a rest at Lillehammer and move back to Kristiania as soon as Svarstad had their new house in order. However, it was not to be.
Instead, the marriage broke down. In August 1919, Sigrid Undset gave birth to her third child, at Lillehammer. She decided to make Lillehammer her home, and within two years, Bjerke-bæk, her large, beautiful house, was completed. It was a property consisting of three large, handsome houses of traditional Norwegian timber architecture, and a big, fenced garden with lovely views of the town and the villages around. Her ailing daughter and the two boys now had a secure and exceptionally beautiful home. At last, after years of moves and changes, Sigrid Undset, the writer, had a quiet place to which she could retreat from the world at large in order to do the one thing she now knew she was really good at -- writing.
Marriage and the First World War were to change Undset's attitudes. During those difficult years she had experienced a crisis of faith, almost imperceptible at first, then increasingly strong. The crisis led her from clear agnostic scepticism, by way of painful uneasiness about the ethical decline of the time, towards Christianity. She had grown up in a tolerant, free-thinking home, and had herself been a sceptical free-thinker, though without the blind faith of the time in science and materialism being the be-all and end-all.
It would appear that Sigrid Undset had had a personal religious experience at one time or another during those years. In all her writing one senses an observant eye for the mystery of life, for that which cannot be explained either by reason or common sense. At the back of her sober, almost brutal realism, there is always an inkling of something unanswerable. It would seem that this recognition of mystery resulted in a personal religious experience. At any rate, this crisis changed her view of Christianity. She no longer believed that man had created God, but had come to believe that God created man.
It was not the Lutheran Church, the Protestant State Church of Norway, where she herself had been christened, that became her choice. She joined the Roman Catholic Church in November 1924, having received thorough instruction from the local Catholic priest in her home district. She was 42 years old at the time.
In Norway Sigrid Undset's conversion to Catholicism was not only considered sensational; it also had an air of scandal about it. It was also noted abroad, where her name was becoming known through the international success of Kristin Lavransdatter. Today, we can only smile at that sensation. But at that time there were practically no Catholics in Norway, an almost obsessively Protestant country. "Papism" was held in contempt, even feared by large sections of the community, and not only by the Lutheran church, but actually just as much by free-thinkers, and among those more or less closely connected with Marxism, Leninism, and socialism. The attacks were quite vicious at times, with the result that Sigrid Undset's polemical gifts were aroused. For many years she participated in the public debate, in fact going out of her way to join in it, in almost total defence of her Roman Church.
However, it is not, after all, the Mistress of Bjerke-bæk or the Catholic lady who interest us most when it comes to Sigrid Undset, it is Sigrid Undset the writer, and this is a productive period for her.
As soon as her third child had been born, and she had a secure roof over her head, she started on Kristin Lavransdatter, a major project indeed. She was completely at home in the subject matter, having written a short novel at an earlier stage, about a period in Norwegian history closer to the pagan times. She had also published a version in Norwegian of the Arthurian legends, from the British/Celtic Middle Ages. She had studied Norse manuscripts and medieval texts, and had closely investigated medieval churches and monasteries, both at home and abroad. She was now an authority on the period she was struggling to portray, and a very different person from the 22-year old who had written her first novel on the Middle Ages.
What had happened to her in the meantime has to do with more than history and literature, it has just as much to do with her development as a person. She had experienced love, and passion, to the bitter end. She had been in despair over a sick world in the throes of the bloodbath of the First World War. When she started on Kristin Lavransdatter in 1919, she knew what life was about.
Kristin Lavransdatter is, of course, an historical novel. But it is more than that. The historical novel aspect is not even the most important part of it. The historical background is precise and realistic enough, and never romanticised. This is by no means a writer's escape from the contemporary scene into vague longings for the past. Instead, in these three volumes Undset transfers the feelings -- well known to herself -- of happiness and sorrow, of ecstasy and despair back into a distant past. Not in order to romanticise them, though obviously Undset's choice of the Middle Ages is a result of her admiration of the rock-firm faith that characterized this period.
She transfers the protagonists to a distant past in order to establish the distance the author needs, in order to create a work of art from her own strong feelings and strict thoughts. She was aware of being on the threshold of something new in her authorship. She searches for, and finds, the necessary distance by going back to the Middle Ages. «I am finding my feet, and quite unaided at that», she wrote to a friend.
It is life's mystery, as she knows it from her own experience, that she writes about in Kristin Lavransdatter. That is why these 1,400 pages, as well as the 1,200 on Olav Auduns-søn are timeless. Her characters are men and women of flesh and blood, they could well be our neighbours today. And Undset has put them in a natural setting which is ours to this day. It is the city of Oslo she knew so well, the valley - Gudbrandsdalen - that she loved, and her father's Trøndelag region.
It was after she had broken out of her marriage that Sigrid Undset became mature enough to write her masterpiece. In the years between 1920 and 1927 she first published the 3-volume Kristin, and then the 4-volume Olav (Audunssøn). Simultaneously with this creative process, she was engaged in trying to find the meaning of her own life, finding the answer in the God of Christianity. As she herself put it: "He brought me in from the outposts."
At the end of this creative eruption, Sigrid Undset entered calmer waters. After 1929, she completed a series of novels set in contemporary Oslo, with a strong Catholic element. She selected her themes from the small, though interesting Catholic community in Norway. But here also, the main theme is love. She also published a number of weighty historical works, which undoubtedly did their bit in putting the history of Norway into a more sober perspective. In addition, she translated several Icelandic sagas into Norwegian and published a few literary essays, mainly on English literature, of which a long essay on the Brontë sisters, and one on D.H. Lawrence, are especially worth mentioning. These are not great literature, but they are strong and inspiring.
In 1934, she published Eleven Years Old, an autobiographical work. With a minimum of camouflage, it tells the story of her own childhood in Kristiania, of her home, rich in intellectual values and love, and of her sick father. It is one of the most fetching Norwegian books ever written about a little girl, surpassed by very few. Sigrid Undset was passing from strength to strength.
At the end of the thirties she started on a new book, an historical novel set in 18th century Scandinavia. Only the first volume, Madame Dorthea, was published in 1939. The Second World War broke out. It was to break her, both as a person and as a writer. She never finished the set of 18th century novels. The War had sapped all her strength.
During the Winter War Undset supported the Finnish cause by donating on 25 January, 1940 her Nobel medal to Finland [1].
When Germany invaded Norway in April 1940, she was forced to flee. She had strongly opposed Hitler and Nazism since the early '30s, and from an early date her books were banned in Germany. She had no wish to be taken hostage by the Germans, and fled to Sweden. Her elder son, Anders, was killed in action at the age of 27, in April 1940, only a few kilometres from their home at Bjerke-bæk. He was an officer in the Norwegian army and was killed in an encounter with German troops. Her sick daughter had died shortly before the outbreak of the War. Bjerke-bæk was occupied by the German Army, and used as officers' quarters during the War.
In 1940, Sigrid Undset and her younger son left neutral Sweden for the United States. There, she untiringly pleaded her occupied country's cause, in writing and speeches. She returned to Norway after the liberation in 1945, worn out. She lived for another four years, but she never wrote another word.
Undset died at the age of 67 in Lillehammer, Norway, where she had lived from 1919 through 1940.

2008-04-30T08:12:00.001-07:00

This is a list of U.S. state colors:

2008-04-29T08:47:00.001-07:00

Geography

Union County (north)
Johnson County (northeast)
Massac County (east)
Ballard County, Kentucky (southeast)
Alexander County (west) Adjacent Counties
Pulaski County was formed in 1843 out of Alexander and Johnson Counties. It was named in honor of Kazimierz Pułaski who was killed at the Siege of Savannah in the Revolutionary War.

Demographics

Karnak
Mound City
Mounds
New Grand Chain
Olmsted
Pulaski
Ullin

2008-04-26T10:02:00.001-07:00

Pop art is a visual artistic movement that emerged in the mid 1950s in Britain and in parallel in the late 1950s in the United States. The term was used by British art critic/curator, Lawrence Alloway.

Pop art in the USA
In Spain, the study of pop art is associated with the "new figurative." which arose from the roots of the crisis of informalism. Eduardo Arroyo could be said to fit within the pop art trend, on account of his interest in the environment, his critique of our media culture which incorporates icons of both mass media communication and the history of painting, and his scorn for nearly all established artistic styles. However, the Spaniard who could be considered the most authentically "pop" artist is Alfredo Alcaín, because of the use he makes of popular images and empty spaces in his compositions.
Also in the category of Spanish pop art is the "Chronicle Team" (El Equipo Crónica), which existed in Valencia between 1964 and 1981, formed by the artists Manolo Valdés and Rafael Solbes. Their movement can be characterized as pop because of its use of comics and publicity images and its simplification of images and photographic compositions.
Filmmaker Pedro Almodovar emerged from Madrid's "La Movida" subculture (1970s) making low budget super 8 pop art movies and was subsequently called the Andy Warhol of Spain by the media at the time. In the book "Almodovar on Almodovar" he is quoted saying that the 1950s film "Funny Face" is a central inspiration for his work. One pop trademark in Almodovar's films is that he always produces a fake commercial to be inserted into a scene.

Notable pop artists

Op art
Plop art
Lowbrow (art movement)
Figuration Libre (art movement)

2008-04-25T09:31:00.001-07:00

Goshen is a town in Orange County, New York, United States. The population was 12,913 at the 2000 census.
The Town of Goshen contains a village also called Goshen. The town is centrally located in the county.

Demographics

Arcadia Hills --
Axworthy Lane --
Durlandville --
Finnegans Corner --
Florida -- A small part of the Village of Florida is on the south town line.
Goshen -- The Village of Goshen is the county seat.
Goshen Hills --
Howell --
Hambletonian Park --
Otter Kill --
Pellets Island --

2008-04-24T08:21:00.000-07:00

This article is about snow skiing. For water skiing, see water skiing. For other related articles, see ski (disambiguation)
Snow Skiing is a group of sports and activities holding in common the use of skis, devices which slide on snow and attach with ski bindings and ski boots to people's feet. Skiing sports differ from snowshoeing in that skis slide, and they differ from ice-skating, water skiing, and in-line skating by being performed on snow. Although snowboarding shares the general characteristics of skiing sports, it evolved from surfing and skateboarding and so is not considered a type of skiing.
Skiing can be grouped into two general categories. Nordic skiing is the oldest category and includes sport that evolved from skiing as done in Scandinavia. Nordic style ski bindings attach at the toes of the skier's ski boots, but not at the heels. Alpine skiing includes sports that evolved from skiing as done in the Alps. Alpine bindings attach at both the toe and the heel of ski boots. These two categories overlap with some sports potentially fitting into both. However, binding style and history indicate that each skiing sport is more one than the other. Some skiing sports such as Telemark skiing have elements of both categories, but its history in Telemark, Norway and free-heel binding style place Telemark skiing firmly in the Nordic category.

History
Skiing is a pastime which has brought together all cultures of today. Many different types of skiing are popular, especially in colder climates, and many types of competitive skiing events are recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the International Ski Federation (FIS), and other sporting organizations. Skiing is most visible to the public during the Winter Olympic Games where it is a major sport.
In skiing's traditional core regions in the snowy parts of Scandinavia, as well as in places such as Alaska, both recreational and competitive skiing is as likely to refer to the cross-country variants as to the internationally downhill variants.
Alpine Skiing: For most people in the United States excluding Alaska, the term "skiing" refers to alpine skiing where one visits a ski resort, purchases a lift ticket, dons cold-weather clothing, skis, ski boots and ski poles, and embarks on a chairlift, gondola lift, or other means of mechanical uphill transport. Upon reaching the summit, the skier disembarks from the ski lift and travels downhill, propelled by gravity, usually along a marked route known as a piste, "run," "trail," or "slope". Most ski resorts use mechanical equipment to "groom," or pack down and smooth, the snow surface on certain ski trails. Grooming is normally associated with trails of lesser difficulty.
Alpine skiing developed in the Alps beginning in 1889. In Winterthur, Switzerland, Odd Kjelsberg may have been the first person in the Alps to try skiing. Previous to this time,the predominate Alpine winter sport had been tobogganing.
Skiing techniques are difficult to master, and accordingly there are ski schools that teach everything from the basics of turning and stopping safely to more advanced carving, racing, mogul or "bump" skiing and newer freestyle techniques. There are two primary types of downhill skiing -- "telemark" and "alpine."
For beginning skiers learning under a trained instructor, skiing speeds are low, the terrain is not steep and is often well-manicured, and the risks are relatively low. For extreme skiers, testing their expert abilities against ever more challenging terrain, the risks may be much higher.
Randoneé Skiing: Randoneé is also called off-piste, ski mountaineering, and Alpine touring. Off-piste skiing includes skiing in unmarked or unpatrolled areas either within the ski resort's boundaries or in the backcountry, frequently amongst trees ("glade skiing"), usually in pursuit of fresh fallen snow, known as powder.
Randoneé skiiers typically use Alpine style skis and boots but with bindings that can be released at the heel for easier movement on flat and uphill terrain. For traveling up-hill randoneé skiers often use skins, strips of fabric temporarily glued to the bottoms of the skis.
Skiing or snowboarding outside a ski resort's boundaries, also known as Off-Site skiing, is illegal in some ski resorts, due to the danger of avalanches on the un-patrolled areas; or the cost of search-and-rescue for lost or overdue skiers. France and Canada are two of the few countries generally permitting this activity. In the United States, Off-Site skiing regulations vary by ski area; many ski resorts prohibit it and some simply post warning signs that skiers are leaving the patrolled ski area boundaries.
In all regions, randoneé skiing is perfectly legal, provided the skier has not skied from a designated ski area after buying a ticket. Some areas do allow departure from the ski area while on skis, others do not. Normally, skiing out of bounds results in loss of the lift ticket and banishment from the ski area. On the other hand, skiing in a closed area is illegal and likely to land a skier in jail.
However, lost or overdue backcountry travellers are usually held responsible for the cost of search-and-rescue service if uninsured. Backcountry skiers traveling in steep terrain prone to avalanches are encouraged to take avalanche training, travel with other experienced people, and carry special equipment for self-rescue. It is recommended that skiers make the local ski patrol aware of where they are going if they stray off-piste in case of avalanches or bad weather that could put skiers in danger.
Telemark Skiing: Telemark skiers use flexible ski boots, either leather or plastic, and do not have their heels locked to the skis. Alpine skiers use stiffer plastic, non-flexible boots and have their heels locked to the skis with releaseable bindings. The venue, speed and technical difficulty associated with the sport can lead to collisions, accidents, hypothermia and other injury or illness, occasionally including death. Regional Ski Patrol organizations, such as the National Ski Patrol in the U.S., exist as a voluntary organization to provide guidance, help, medical assistance and emergency rescue to those in need of it.
Back Country Skiing: Also called Nordic touring. In the Alps where skiers can easily ski from area to area, Randoneé and backcountry skiing are indistinguishable. In North America however, where chairlifts either aren't allowed or are impractical for touring, skiers typically use Nordic style equipment which is more suitable for skiing up-hill. The heels of the bindings always remain free, unlike Randoneé bindings which can be locked down.
Military Skiing: In addition to its role in recreation and sport, skiing is also used as a means of transport by the military, and many armies train troops for ski warfare. Ski troops played a key role in retaining Finnish independence from Russia during the Winter War, and from Germany during the Lapland War, although the use of ski troops was recorded by the Danish historian Saxo Grammaticus in the 13th century. The sport of Biathlon was developed from military skiing patrols.
Alpine Freestyle: This kind of skiing could be called acrobatics on skis. Alpine freestyle was pioneered by Stein Ericson in 1962. It developed in the 1970s into a style called Hotdogging. More recently Alpine freestyle has evolved into the current style called Jib skiing or New freestyle, a new style of skiing that started in the late 1990s. In this type of skiing, skiers use jumps also called kickers,or rails to do urban style aerial tricks.
Nordic Skiing: Also called cross-country skiing. World wide, Nordic skiing may be the most popular form of skiing since it does not require a specially ski area. Typically after donning appropriate clothing, the skier goes outside and skis in a local park or even on a snowy street. Nordic skiing is the oldest form of skiing and was developed in Scandinavia as a way of traveling in the winter.
Cross-Country Racing: Cross-country skiing takes its name from a type of ski race that is one third up, one third down, and one third flat. The name distinguishes it from other types of ski races and competition such as downhill racing, slalom racing, and Nordic jumping. Cross-country races can be either freestyle or classic. In freestyle racing, any technique is allowed as long as it is human powered and on skis. In a classic race, skating techniques are prohibited.
Nordic Jumping: Also called ski-flying and ski jumping. A competition in which skiers slide down a ramp called a jump and attempt to go the furthest before landing on the ground. This is done with Nordic style skis, meaning that the heels of boot and binding are detached from the ski. The skies are much longer and wider than other types of skis and jumping is typically done without ski-poles.
Kite skiing and para-skiing Skiing done while being pulled or carried by a parasail, hangglider, or kite.
Ski jøring Ski jøring is also called Euro-style mushing. Skiing while being pulled by an animal(s),typically dogs or horses, or by snowmachine. Typically dogs or horses are used.

Types of skiing
Downhill skiing for people with disabilities is both a recreational pastime and a competitive sport open to those with any manner of cognitive and/or physical disabilities. Adaptations include the use of outriggers, ski tip retention devices, sit-skis like monoskis and bi-skis, brightly colored guide bibs, ski guides, and inter-skier communication systems or audible clues for blind skiers. Recreational skiing programs for people with disabilities exist at mountains across the globe. In the northeastern United States, Maine Handicapped Skiing is one of the largest, operating at Sunday River ski resort, Other New England resorts with adaptive skiing programs include: Loon Mountain, Waterville Valley, and Mount Sunapee. In the western part of the United States, the National Sports Center for the Disabled at Winter Park Resort near Denver, Colorado attracts both first-timers and world-class disabled athletes from Europe, Asia, and North America. Currently the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and the International Ski Federation (FIS) sanction a number of regional, national, and international disabled skiing events, most notably a World Cup circuit, a Disabled Alpine Skiing World Championships, and the Paralympic Winter Games. Skiing for people with disabilities became popular after World War II with the return of injured veterans.

Skiing for people with disabilities
"Skiing" is one of the few words in the English language that contains two "i"s in a row.

Trivia

Skiing topics

Alpine Skiing

Cross-country skiing
Backcountry skiing
Biathlon
Disabled Nordic skiing
Nordic combined
Telemark skiing
Skijoring
Ski jumping(ski-flying)
Ski touring Nordic Skiing

Stem techniques

The Snowplough - (also known as the wedge) - see snowplough turn
The Stem Christie
Parallel turn
Carve turn
Telemark turn
Pivot turn
Jump turn Turning techniques
Main article: Ski Paraphernalia

Winter Olympic Games
The Honda Ski Tour
Winter Paralympic Games
Four Hills Tournament
Winter X Games
Birkebeinerrennet
American Birkebeiner
Tour of Anchorage Competition events

Alpine Skiing World Cup
Alpine World Skiing Championships
Slalom
Giant slalom
Super Giant Slalom
Downhill
Alpine skiing combined
Speed Skiing Alpine events

Aerials
Moguls Freestyle events

Biathlon
Nordic combined
Ski jumping
Cross-country skiing Nordic events
International organizations:
National organizations:

International Biathlon Union (IBU)
International Free Skiers Association (IFSA)
International Ski Federation (FIS)
International Ski Instructors Association (ISIA)
International Skiing History Association (ISHA)
Iran Ski Federation
US National Ski Hall of Fame
Professional Ski Instructors of America
Swiss Ski Association (in French and German)
British Association of Snowsport Instructors
Ski Club of Great Britain
United States Ski and Snowboard Association
Croatian Ski Association / Hrvatski skijaški savez (HSS)
National Ski Patrol
Canadian Ski Instructors' Alliance
Alpine Canada Alpin Skiing organizations

Ski resorts
List of ski areas and resorts
National Ski Areas Association
Luxury resorts Ski areas and resorts
Main article: Ski lift Ski lifts

History of skiing
Artificial ski slope
Indoor ski slope
- Ski Simulators
  Piste
  Ski resort
  Ski school
  Ski season
  Ski warfare
  Snow
  - Snow cannon
    Ice
    Snowcat (piste basher)
    Physics of skiing
    Après-ski Other
    
    Altitude sickness
    Injuries
    
    Anterior cruciate ligament
    Fracture
    First aid
    
    Wilderness first aid
    Ski patrol
    Frost bite
    Hypothermia
    Windburn
    Physical fitness
    
    Exercise
    Snow blindness
    Ski sickness
    List of famous skiing deaths
    Shin-bang Ski videos and movies
    
    Grass skiing
    Snowboarding
    Snowshoe walking
    Sports
    Water skiing
    Winter sport

2008-04-23T08:57:00.001-07:00

The art of motion-picture making within the nation of Spain or by Spanish filmmakers abroad is collectively known as Spanish Cinema.
In recent years, Spanish cinema has achieved high marks of recognition as a result of its creative and technical excellence. In the long history of Spanish cinema, the great filmmaker Luis Buñuel was the first to achieve universal recognition, followed by Pedro Almodóvar in the 1980s. Spanish cinema has also seen international success over the years with films by directors like Segundo de Chomón, Florián Rey, Luis García Berlanga, Carlos Saura, Julio Medem and Alejandro Amenábar. Woody Allen, upon receiving the prestigious Prince of Asturias Award in 2002 in Oviedo remarked: When I left New York, the most exciting film in the city at the time was Spanish, Pedro Almodovar's one. I hope that Europeans will continue to lead the way in film making because at the moment not much is coming from the United States."
Non-directors have obtained less international notability. Only the cinematographer Néstor Almendros, the actress Penélope Cruz and the actors Fernando Rey, Antonio Banderas, Javier Bardem and Fernando Fernán Gómez have obtained some recognition outside of Spain. Mexican actor Gael García Bernal has also recently received international notoriety in films by Spanish directors.
Today, only 10 to 20% of box office receipts in Spain are generated by domestic films, a situation that repeats itself in many nations of Europe and the Americas. The Spanish government has therefore implemented various measures aimed at supporting local film production and movie theaters, which include the assurance of funding from the main national television stations. The trend is being reversed with the recent screening of mega productions such as the €30 million film Alatriste (starring Viggo Mortensen), the Academy Award winning Spanish/Mexican film Pan's Labyrinth (El Laberinto del Fauno), Volver (starring Penélope Cruz), and Los Borgia (€10 million), all of them sold-out blockbusters in Spain.
Another aspect of Spanish cinema mostly unknown to the general public is the appearance of English-language Spanish films such as The Machinist (starring Christian Bale) The Others (starring Nicole Kidman), Basic Instinct II (starring Sharon Stone), and Milos Forman's Goya's Ghosts (starring Javier Bardem and Natalie Portman). All of these films were produced by Spanish firms. This attests to the dynamism and creativity of Spanish directors and producers. (More on this below.)

Cinema of Albania
Cinema of Armenia
Cinema of Austria
Cinema of Azerbaijan
Cinema of Belgium
Cinema of Bosnia-Herzegovina
Cinema of Bulgaria
Cinema of Croatia
Cinema of Cyprus
Cinema of the Czech Republic
Cinema of Denmark
Cinema of Estonia
Cinema of the Faroe Islands
Cinema of Finland
Cinema of France
Cinema of Georgia
Cinema of Germany
Cinema of Greece
Cinema of Hungary
Cinema of Iceland
Cinema of Ireland
Cinema of Italy
Cinema of Latvia
Cinema of Lithuania
Cinema of Luxembourg
Cinema of Montenegro
Cinema of the Netherlands
Cinema of Norway
Cinema of Poland
Cinema of Portugal
Cinema of Romania
Cinema of Russia

Cinema of the Russian Empire
Cinema of Serbia
Cinema of Slovakia
Cinema of Slovenia
Cinema of the Soviet Union
Cinema of Spain
Cinema of Sweden
Cinema of Switzerland
Cinema of Turkey
Cinema of the UK
Cinema of Ukraine
Cinema of Yugoslavia Origins
In 1914, Barcelona was the center of the nation's film industry. The españoladas (historical epics of Spain) predominated until the 1960s. Prominent among these were the films of Florián Rey, starring Imperio Argentina, and the first version of Nobleza Baturra (1925). Historical dramas such as Vida de Cristóbal Colón y su Descubrimiento de América (The Life of Christopher Columbus and His Discovery of America) (1917), by the French director Gerald Bourgeois, adaptations of newspaper serials such as Los misterios de Barcelona (The Mysteries of Barcelona) starring Joan Maria Codina (1916), and of stage plays such as Don Juan Tenorio, by Ricardo Baños, and zarzuelas (comedic operettas), were also produced. Even the Nobel Prize-winning playwright Jacinto Benavente, who said that "in film they pay me the scraps," would shoot film versions of his theatrical works.
In 1928, Ernesto Giménez Caballero and Luis Buñuel founded the first cine-club (film society), in Madrid. By that point, Madrid was already the primary center of the industry; 44 of the 58 films released up until that point had been produced there.
The rural drama La aldea maldita (The Cursed Village) (Florian Rey, 1929) was a hit in Paris, where, at the same time, Buñuel and Dalí premiered Un chien andalou (An Andalusian Dog). Un chien andalou has become one of the most well-known avant-garde films of that era.

The height of silent cinema
By 1931, the introduction of audiophonic foreign productions had hurt the Spanish film industry to the point where only a single title was released that year.
In 1935, Manuel Casanova founded the Compañía Industrial Film Española S.A. (Spanish Industrial Film Company Inc, CIFESA) and introduced sound to Spanish film-making. CIFESA would grow to become the biggest production company to ever exist in Spain. Sometimes criticized as an instrument of the right wing, it nevertheless supported young filmmakers such as Luis Buñuel and his pseudo-documentary Las Hurdes: Tierra Sin Pan (Breadless Land). In 1933 it was responsible for filming 17 motion pictures and in 1934, 21. The most notable success was Benito Perojo´s La verbena de la paloma (The Dove's Verbena). By 1935 production had risen to 37 films.

The crisis of sound
Around 1936, both sides of the Civil War began to use cinema as a means of propaganda and censorship. A typical example of this is Luis Buñuel's España 1936, which also contains much rare newsreel footage. The pro-Franco side founded the National Department of Cinematography, causing many actors to go into exile.
The new regime then began to impose obligatory dubbing to highlight directors such as Ignacio F. Iquino, Rafael Gil (Huella de luz (1941)), Juan de Orduña (Locura de amor (1948)), Arturo Román, José Luis Sáenz de Heredia (Raza (film)) (1942)) with scripts of Franco's and Edgar Neville's. They also began to highlight Fedra (1956), by Manuel Mur Oti.
For its part, Marcelino, pan y vino (Marcelino, Bread and Wine) (1955) from Ladislao Vajda would trigger a trend of child actors, such as those who would become the protagonists of "Joselito," "Marisol," "Rocío Durcal" or "Pili y Mili."
Finally, in the 1950s, the influence of Neorealism became evident in the works of new directors such as Antonio del Amo, Arturo Nieves Conde, Juan Antonio Bardem, and Luis García Berlanga. In the conversations of Salamanca, Juan Antonio Bardem summed up cinema of postwar Spain in a manifesto that has become famous for its harshness: "Real Spanish cinema is politically inefficient, socially false, intellectually infirm, aesthetically void and industrially weak."
Juan de Orduña would later have an enormous commercial hit with El Último Cuplé (The Final Variety Song) (1957), with leading actress Sara Montiel.
Buñuel sporadically returned to Spain to film the shocking Viridiana (1961) and Tristana (1970), two of his biggest films.

The Civil War and its aftermath
In 1962, José María García Escudero became the Director General of Cinema, propelling forward state efforts and the Escuela Oficial de Cine (Official Cinema School), from which emerged the majority of new directors, generally from the political left and those opposed to the Franco dictatorship. Among these were Mario Camus, Miguel Picazo, Francisco Regueiro, Manuel Summers, and, above all, Carlos Saura. Apart from this line of directors, Fernando Fernán Gómez made the classic El extraño viaje (The Strange Trip) (1964). From television came Jaime de Armiñan, author of Mi querida señorita (My Dear Lady) (1971).
From the so-called Escuela de Barcelona, originally more experimentalist and cosmopolitan, come Vicente Aranda, Jaime Camino, and Gonzalo Suárez, who made their master works in the 1980s.
The San Sebastian International Film Festival is a major film festival supervised by the FIAPF. It was started in 1953, and it takes place in San Sebastián every year. Alfred Hitchcock, Audrey Hepburn, Steven Spielberg, Gregory Peck, Elizabeth Taylor are some of the stars that have participated in this festival, the most important in Spain and one of the best cinema festivals in the world.
The Festival de Cine de Sitges, now known as the Festival Internacional de Cinema de Catalunya (International Film Festival of Catalonia), was started in 1967. It is considered one of the best cinematographic contests in Europe, and is the best in the specialty of science fiction film.

The new Spanish cinema
With the end of dictatorship, censorship was greatly loosened and cultural works were permitted in other languages spoken in Spain besides Spanish, resulting in the founding of the Catalan Institute of Cinema, among others.
At the beginning, the popular phenomena of striptease and landismo (from Alfredo Landa) triumph. During the democracy, a whole new series of directors base their films either on controversial topics or on revising the country's history. Jaime Chávarri, Víctor Erice, José Luis Garci, Manuel Gutiérrez Aragón, Eloy de la Iglesia, Pilar Miró and Pedro Olea were some of these who directed great films. Montxo Armendáriz or Juanma Bajo Ulloa's "new Basque cinema" has also been outstanding; another prominent Basque director is Julio Medem.
The Spanish cinema, however, depends on the great hits of the so-called Madrileño comedy by Fernando Colomo or Fernando Trueba, the sophisticated melodramas by Pedro Almodóvar, Alex de la Iglesia and Santiago Segura's black humour or Alejandro Amenábar's works, in such a manner that, according to producer José Antonio Félez, "50% of total box office revenues comes from five titles, and between 8 and 10 films give 80% of the total" during the year 2004.
On the other hand, Spanish pornographic cinema has flourished in the city of Barcelona; one of its stars is Nacho Vidal.
In 1987, a year after the founding of the Academia de las Artes y las Ciencias Cinematográficas de España, the Goya Awards were created to recognize excellence in many aspects of Spanish motion picture making such as acting, directing and screenwriting. The first ceremony took place on March 16, 1987 at the Teatro Lope de Vega, Madrid. The ceremony continues to take place annually around the end of January, and awards are given to films produced during the previous year. The award itself is a small bronze bust of Francisco de Goya created by the sculptor José Luis Fernández.

The cinema of the democratic era
Spanish newspaper El Mundo recently took notice of a phenomenon little-known to general audienes when it wrote: "A new style of producing has been created in our country. world-class stars, English-language shoots and big budgets. Production companies like KanZaman are currently involved in various ambitious projects that import the ways and customs of Hollywood to our industry." English language Spanish films produced by Spanish companies include The Machinist (starring Christian Bale), The Others (starring Nicole Kidman), Basic Instinct II (KanZaman, Spain) (starring Sharon Stone), and Milos Forman's Goya's Ghosts (Xuxa Produciones, Spain) (starring Javier Bardem and Natalie Portman), Two Much (starring Antonio Banderas, Melanie Griffith.
KanZaman (Spain) and Recorded Picture Company (UK) co-produced Sexy Beast (starring Ben Kingsley) in 1999. Other films co-produced by KanZaman include: The Reckoning (starring Paul Bettany and Willem Dafoe); The Bridge of San Luis Rey, based on the Pulitzer prize winning Thornton Wilder novel of the same name and starring Robert de Niro, Harvey Keitel, Kathy Bates and Pilar Lopez de Ayala; Mike Barker's A Good Woman (starring Helen Hunt and Scarlett Johansson), and Sahara (starring Mathew McConaughey and Penélope Cruz). In 2004, KanZaman established Reino del Cielo s.l. through which it co-produced Ridley Scott's epicKingdom of Heaven (starring Orlando Bloom and Liam Neeson), making it the biggest production in the history of Spanish cinema.

2008-04-22T09:14:00.001-07:00

Shanghai Knights is an American action-comedy movie released on February 3, 2003. It is the sequel to Shanghai Noon. It was directed by David Dobkin and written by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar.

Sequel rumors
Although not as big of a success as Shanghai Noon, Knights still managed to gross $88,323,487 according to Box Office Mojo.

Box Office

Cast & Crew

Chon Wang: Jackie Chan
Roy O'Bannon: Owen Wilson
Chon Lin: Fann Wong
Lord Nelson Rathbone: Aidan Gillen
Wu Chow: Donnie Yen
Artie Doyle: Tom Fisher
Queen Victoria: Gemma Jones
Charlie Chaplin Aaron Johnson
Newspaper Boy: Charlie G. Hawkins
Chon Wang's Father: Kim Chan
Cigarette Girl: Daisy Beaumont
Prostitute #1: Alison King Cast

Director: David Dobkin
Writers: Miles Millar, Alfred Gough
Cinematographer: Adrian Biddle Crew
While Shanghai Knights contains many anachronisms and historical inaccuracies, the writers say they were intentionally put in to make the movie more fun. This is consistent with the choices of music in the film, mostly early classic rock hits from the 1960s. Classic rock is so ingrained in the film, that when Owen Wilson's character dreams of his future children, he calls them "Vera, Chuck, and Dave," as in the song "When I'm Sixty-Four" by the Beatles.

Wu Chow (Donnie Yen) is introduced as the Emperor of China's younger bastard brother. The historical Emperor at this time was the fifteen-year-old Guangxu.
Historically the tenth in line to the throne of England in 1887 was Queen Victoria's granddaughter, Princess Victoria Melita of Edinburgh.
Arthur Conan Doyle was not knighted until much later in his life. Also, he was a physician, not a police officer, before becoming a writer, and he had already started writing Sherlock Holmes before the date portrayed in the movie.
When Chon objects to taking shelter in a brothel, Roy quips, "what are we going to do? Check into the Savoy?" The Savoy Hotel was not built until 1889.
Jack the Ripper was not active until 1888.
The plot to eradicate the Royal Family at Queen Victoria's Golden Jubilee is based on an Irish nationalist plot planned for the same time; however, the nationalist plan was to blow up the Houses of Parliament, not to assassinate the Royal Family.
During one scene, an automobile is shown that is far more advanced than the rudimentary automobilies of the time.
The story also featured a young thief Charlie Chaplin, who wasn't even born until 1889.
Lord Rathbone wrongly addresses Queen Victoria, calling her "Your Highness", when speaking to a monarch whether it be male or female the spoken form is always "Your Majesty", and thereafter "Ma'am" or "Sir". He says this hastily trying to get out of the line of fire of Wu Chow who is preparing to aim and kill the Royal Family on the balcony behind the Houses of Parliament overlooking the River Thames passing Westminster, he says "I wish not to impeed your view, Your Highness". Victoria was Queen and so is styled "Your Majesty" when spoken to. Trivia
Filmed in several locations around the world.

Barrandov Studios (Prague)

2008-04-21T09:23:00.001-07:00

Fringe may refer to:
An ornamental appendage to the border of an item, such as a flag. It originally consisted of the ends of the warp, projecting beyond the woven fabric. More commonly it is made separate and sewed on, consisting sometimes of projecting ends, twisted or plaited together, and sometimes of loose threads of wool, silk, or linen, or narrow strips of leather, or the like.
A Fringe Tree (Chionanthus) (syn. Linociera Sw.) is a genus of about 80 species of flowering plants in the family Oleaceae.
Fringe (hair), the front part of the hair that hangs down above the eyes. Some English-speakers, including Americans, Canadians, and Filipinos refer to a fringe as "bangs."
fringe theatre, non-mainstream and experimental theatre, such as the Edinburgh Fringe
Canadian Fringe Festivals, takes place in several Canadian cities and based off of the Edinburgh Fringe
Fringe science, a phrase used to describe scientific inquiry in an established field that departs significantly from mainstream or orthodox theories.
By extension, any cultural manifestation not in the mainstream
The Fringe, an indie rock band
An adjective usually used in evaluating sports prospects: a "fringe prospect" lacks the skills to be an impact player at the highest level, and "fringe" generally connotes something on the border between major league and minor league.
Fringe Product, a record label
Fringe field, a type of electric or magnetic field that exists on the edges of charged objects or magnets.
The Fringe is a vast and mostly lawless region of space beyond the Solar system in the computer game Tachyon: The Fringe.
Fringes on an interference pattern refer to the dark and light patches made by constructive and destructive interference by the waves making the pattern. Fringes are exploited by the Interferometry science.

2008-04-20T08:01:00.001-07:00

In the sport of cricket, a bail is one of the two smaller sticks placed on top of the three stumps to form a wicket. The bails are used to determine when the wicket is broken, which in turn is one of the critical factors in determining whether a batsman is out bowled, stumped, run out or hit wicket.
The wicket is considered to be broken if either or both of the bails fall from the stumps, or a stump is struck out of the ground, by:
This means, for example, that if the ball hits the wicket directly from the bowler's delivery, the batsman is only out bowled if a bail falls off, so a ball can actually brush or rest against the stumps without the batsman being out.
If a bail falls off the stumps for any other reason while the ball is still in play, and a later incident such as a run out attempt requires the wicket to be broken, then the other bail can be removed (if it has not yet fallen off), or a stump can be struck out of the ground or pulled up, as described above.
Each bail is made of a single cylindrically shaped piece of wood which has two smaller cylinders of wood protruding from each end. The large central cylinder is called the barrel and the smaller protrusions are the spigots. The spigots are of unequal length: the longer rests alone on one stump, while the shorter rests on the middle stump together with the short spigot of the other bail.
Special heavy bails made of denser wood (usually lignum vitae) are sometimes used in windy conditions if the normal light bails are likely to be blown off the stumps. The umpires can decide to dispense with the bails completely (for example, where strong gusts of wind would remove even the heavy bails), in which case the umpires will adjudge whether or not the wicket is broken.

the ball,
the striking batsman's bat, or any part of the striker's body or clothing (even if it falls off), or
a fielder with the hand or arm holding the ball. Quotation
An excerpt from Law 8(3)(b) of the Laws of Cricket:
Each bail shall conform to the following specifications:

Overall length:- 4 5/16 in/10.95cm

Length of barrel:- 2 1/8 in/5.40cm

Longer spigot:- 1 3/8 in/3.49cm

Shorter spigot:- 13/16 in/2.06cm

Overall length:- 4 5/16 in/10.95cm
Length of barrel:- 2 1/8 in/5.40cm
Longer spigot:- 1 3/8 in/3.49cm
Shorter spigot:- 13/16 in/2.06cm

2008-04-19T10:29:00.001-07:00

Let It Bleed is an album by The Rolling Stones, released in 1969. The follow up to 1968's Beggars Banquet, it appeared shortly after the band's 1969 American Tour, their first in the U.S. in three years.

All Music Guide link
Rolling Stone link History
The cover displays a surreal sculpture designed by Robert Brownjohn. The image consists of the Let It Bleed record being played by the antique tone-arm of a turntable, which is fitted with a tall record-changer-style spindle supporting, in place of a stack of records, a number of items stacked on a dinner plate (bottom-to-top): a magnetic tape/movie reel canister labelled Stones - Let It Bleed; a clock face; a pizza; a small tyre; a cake with kitsch icing, reminiscent of art-deco-style plaster rendering; and the band itself in the form of wedding-style topping figures. The cake parts of the album cover construction were prepared by then unknown cookery writer Delia Smith [2]. The artwork is inspired by the working title of the album, which was "Automatic Changer" (source: Bill Wyman, Rolling with the Stones).
The reverse of the LP sleeve shows the same "record-stack" melange partially "consumed", with a slice of the uppermost cake layer removed; the tyre hacked and nailed, bandaged and patched; film stray from the tape/film canister; and the supporting plate chipped; a slice of pizza with a bite taken lies on the shattered vinyl; along with the detached tone-arm -- as if evidence of the aftermath of a wild party.
The track listing on the record sleeve does not follow the tracklisting on the record. According to Brownjohn, he altered the track listing purely for visual reasons.

Cover
All songs by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, except where noted. The order in which track titles appeared on the back of the LP sleeve did not reflect their actual order of play -- not unusual in its day. The correct orders were shown on the record's label.

Track listing

"Gimme Shelter" – 4:32

Features Merry Clayton on backing vocals
"Love in Vain" (Robert Johnson) – 4:22
- Features Ry Cooder on mandolin
  "Country Honk" – 3:10
  - Country version of "Honky Tonk Women", features Mick Taylor on guitar
    "Live With Me" – 3:36
    - Features both Leon Russell and Nicky Hopkins on piano with Keith Richards on bass and Mick Taylor on guitar
      "Let It Bleed" – 5:34
      - Features Ian Stewart on piano Side two
        
        Mick Jagger – vocals, harmonica, backing vocals
        Keith Richards – acoustic guitar, backing vocals, electric guitar, slide guitar, vocals, bass
        Charlie Watts – drums
        Bill Wyman – bass, autoharp, vibes
        Brian Jones - autoharp, percussion (congas)
        Mick Taylor – electric guitar, slide guitar
        Madeline Bell – backing vocals
        Byron Berline – fiddle
        Merry Clayton – vocals, backing vocals
        Ry Cooder – mandolin
        Rocky Dijon – congas, maracas
        Nicky Hopkins – piano, organ
        Bobby Keys – tenor saxophone
        Al Kooper – piano, organ, French horn
        London Bach Choir – backing vocals
        Jimmy Miller – drums, percussion, tambourine
        Nanette Newman – backing vocals
        Leon Russell – piano
        Ian Stewart – piano
        Doris Troy – backing vocals
        Tom Pollard – backing vocals Personnel
        
        Charts
        
        Singles

2008-04-18T10:25:00.001-07:00

In computing, file system fragmentation, sometimes called file system aging, is the inability of a file system to lay out related data sequentially (contiguously), an inherent phenomenon in storage-backed file systems that allow in-place modification of their contents. It is a special case of data fragmentation. File system fragmentation increases disk head movement or seeks, which are known to hinder throughput. The correction to existing fragmentation is to compress files and free space back into contiguous areas, a process called defragmentation.

Why fragmentation occurs
File system fragmentation is projected to become more problematic with newer hardware due to the increasing disparity between sequential access speed and rotational delay (and to a lesser extent seek time), of consumer-grade hard disks,

Performance implications
File system fragmentation may occur on several levels:

Fragmentation within individual files and their metadata.
Free space fragmentation, making it increasingly difficult to lay out new files contiguously.
The decrease of locality of reference between separate, but related files. Types of fragmentation
Individual file fragmentation occurs when a single file has been broken into multiple pieces (called extents on extent-based file systems). While disk file systems attempt to keep individual files contiguous, this is not often possible without significant performance penalties. File system check and defragmentation tools typically only account for file fragmentation in their "fragmentation percentage" statistic.

File fragmentation
Free (unallocated) space fragmentation occurs when there are several unused areas of the file system where new files or metadata can be written to. Unwanted free space fragmentation is generally caused by deletion or truncation of files, but file systems may also intentionally insert fragments ("bubbles") of free space in order to facilitate extending nearby files (see proactive techniques below).

Free space fragmentation
Related file fragmentation, also called application-level (file) fragmentation, refers to the lack of locality of reference between related files. Unlike the previous two types of fragmentation, related file fragmentation is a much more vague concept, as it heavily depends on the access pattern of specific applications. This also makes objectively measuring or estimating it very difficult. However, arguably, it is the most critical type of fragmentation, as studies have found that the most frequently accessed files tend to be small compared to available disk throughput per second.
To avoid related file fragmentation and improve locality of reference, assumptions about the operation of applications have to be made. A very frequent assumption made is that it is worthwhile to keep smaller files within a single directory together, and lay them out in the natural file system order. While it is often a reasonable assumption, it does not always hold. For example, an application might read several different files, perhaps in different directories, in the exact same order they were written. Thus, a file system that simply orders all writes successively, might work faster for the given application.

Related file fragmentation
Several techniques have been developed to fight fragmentation. They can usually be classified into two categories: proactive and retroactive. Due to the hard predictability of access patterns, these techniques are most often heuristic in nature, and may degrade performance under unexpected workloads.

Techniques for mitigating fragmentation
Proactive techniques attempt to keep fragmentation at a minimum at the time data is being written on the disk. The simplest of such is, perhaps, appending data to an existing fragment in place where possible, instead of allocating new blocks to a new fragment.
Many of today's file systems attempt to preallocate longer chunks, or chunks from different free space fragments, called extents to files that are actively appended to. This mainly avoids file fragmentation when several files are concurrently being appended to, thus avoiding them from becoming excessively intertwined.
Bittorrent and other peer-to-peer filesharing clients have an "Antifragmentation" feature that allocates the full space needed for a file when initiating downloads.

Proactive techniques
Retroactive techniques attempt to reduce fragmentation, or the negative effects of fragmentation, after it has occurred. Many file systems provide defragmentation tools, which attempt to reorder fragments of files, and often also increase locality of reference by keeping smaller files in directories, or directory trees, close to each other on the disk.
The HFS Plus file system transparently defragments files that are less than 20 MiB in size and are broken into 8 or more fragments, when the file is being opened.

2008-04-17T09:55:00.001-07:00

University
Rabbi Zecharias Frankel (1801-1875) at one time was in the traditional wing of the nascent Reform Judaism movement. After the second Reform rabbinic conference (1845, Frankfurt, Germany) he resigned after coming to believe that their positions were exceedingly radical. In 1854 he became the head of a new rabbinical school, the Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau. In his magnum opus Darkhei HaMishnah (Ways of the Mishnah) Rabbi Frankel amassed scholarly support which showed that Jewish law was not static, but rather had always developed in response to changing conditions. He called his approach towards Judaism 'Positive-Historical', which meant that one should accept Jewish law and tradition as normative, yet one must be open to changing and developing the law in the same historical fashion that Judaism has always historically developed.

The Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau
About this time in America, Rabbi Sabato Morais championed the reaction to American Reform. At one time Rabbi Morais had been a voice for moderation within the coalition of Reformers. He had opposed the more radical changes, but was open to moderate changes that would not offend traditional sensibilities. After the Reform movement published the Pittsburgh Platform, Rabbi Morais recognized the futility of his efforts and began the creation of a new rabbinical school in New York City. He was soon joined by Rabbi Alexander Kohut and Rabbi Bernard Drachman, both of whom had received semicha (rabbinic ordination) at Rabbi Frankel's Breslau seminary. They shaped the curriculum and philosophy of the new school after Rabbi Frankel's seminary.
In 1902, Professor Solomon Schechter assumed presidency of JTS. In a series of papers he articulated an ideology for the nascent movement. In 1913 he presided over the creation of the United Synagogue of America. (The name was changed in 1991 to the United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism.)
Prominent professors at the Seminary were such luminaries as Saul Lieberman, Alexander Marx, Louis Ginzberg and Louis Finkelstein and others as well.
Between 1940 and 1985, The Jewish Theological Seminary produced a radio and television show called "The Eternal Light." The show aired on Sunday afternoons, featuring well-known Jewish personalities like Chaim Potok and Elie Wiesel. Broadcasts did not involve preaching or prayer, but drew on history, literature and social issues to explore Judaism and Jewish holidays in a manner that was accessible to persons of any faith.

Positive-Historical Judaism in America
Effective March 26, 2007, The Jewish Theological Seminary accepts openly gay students into their rabbinical and cantorial programs. An announcement in the press, first posted on the school's website and typified by Haaretz.com has been made about the admission of and ordination of homosexual students for the rabbinate and for cantorship.
A Conservative Jewish seminary in New York has agreed to admit gays and lesbians who want to become rabbis and cantors, but declined to take a stand on whether rabbis should officiate at same-sex unions. The Jewish Theological Seminary announced its decision yesterday, more than three months after the Rabbinical Assembly's Committee on Jewish Law and Standards authorized the ordination of gays and lesbians.

Admission of GLBT students

Cyrus Adler
Gerson Cohen
Miles Cohen
Arnie Eisen
José Faur
Louis Finkelstein
Israel Francus
Shamma Friedman
Stephen Geller
Neil Gillman
Louis Ginsberg
H. L. Ginzberg
David Weiss Halivni
Abraham Joshua Heschel
Carol K. Ingall
Mordechai Kaplan
Saul Lieberman
Dov Mandelbaum
Barbara Mann
David Marcus
Alexander Marx
Alan Mintz
Yochanan Muffs
David G. Roskies
Joel Roth
Solomon Schechter
Raymond Scheindlin
Ismar Schorsch
Gordon Tucker
Burton Visotzky
Jack Wertheimer
Dov Zlotnick Notable alumni

Conservative Judaism
Jewish Theological Seminary of Breslau
JTS library fire
Jüdisch-Theologisches Seminar
Rabbinical Assembly
Seminario Rabinico Latinoamericano [1]
United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism

2008-04-16T10:02:00.001-07:00

The Baltic states refer to Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania, all of which were controlled by the Soviet Union during 1940–1941 and 1944/1945–1991. From a linguistic standpoint, only the Latvians and the Lithuanians are "Baltic" peoples properly speaking, as the Estonians speak an unrelated Finnic language. Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have been members of the European Union and NATO since 2004. Today the three countries are liberal democracies and their market economies have in recent years undergone rapid expansion.
In the Cold War context, the three countries were considered a part of Eastern Europe and were generally treated as a cohesive cultural and historical entity. However, today it is often stressed that Latvia, Lithuania, and particularly Estonia have little else in common other than geographic proximity, similar small size, and a shared history of Soviet occupation.
Culturally and historically, it is more appropriate to view Estonia, which is Lutheran and Finnic-speaking, as belonging in the Northern European cultural sphere. Indeed, Estonians consider themselves a Nordic people rather than Balts,
To a lesser degree, northern parts of Latvia have also been influenced by Lutheran and Northern European traditions. The rest of the country, in particular the southeast, along with its southern neighbor, Lithuania, are predominantly Catholic and culturally situated in Central Europe. In Lithuania and most of Latvia, the historical impact of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Russian Empire, and the German Empire have been of crucial importance. In Estonia and northern parts of Latvia, historical connections to the Teutonic Order, to the Hanseatic League, and to the Swedish and Danish Empires have left an important historical imprint.
It should be noted that although politically the present-day Baltic countries are republics, the term "Baltic republics" often refers to something different: the constituent Baltic republics of the Soviet Union. They are occasionally confused with the Balkan states because of their similar sounding name, but are similar in name only.

History of the Baltic states
Despite the three nations' similar history, their languages belong to two distinct language families. The Latvian and Lithuanian languages make up the group of Baltic languages which belongs to the Indo-European language family. The Baltic states have historically also been in the Swedish and Russian spheres of influence. Following the period of Soviet domination, ethnic Russian immigrants from former USSR and their descendants today make up a sizable minority in the Baltic states, particularly in Latvia (about one-third of the population) and Estonia (one-fourth of the population).

See also

2008-04-15T08:38:00.001-07:00

KCPT is a public television station in Kansas City, Missouri, serving the greater Kansas City metropolitan area as a PBS member station.
The station signed on for the first time as KCSD, owned by the Kansas City School District. The school district put the license on the market in 1971. A group of civic leaders formed "Public Television 19" and bought the license. The station relaunched in January 1972 as KCPT. That fall, it began broadcasting PBS shows in color for the first time.
From studios located in downtown Kansas City, KCPT produces local programs such as Kansas City Week in Review, Rare Visions & Roadside Revelations and Ruckus, a political affairs program. Newer programs include TalkBack Live with Steve Rose and One on One with Victor Hogstrom. KCPT's studios were once home to KCTV, and KCTV's trademark transmission tower still rises above the building.

2008-04-14T10:27:00.001-07:00

Senior club appearances and goals counted for the domestic league only. * Appearances (Goals)
Gyula Zsengellér (Cegléd, December 27, 1915 - Nicosia, March 29, 1999) was a Hungarian footballer and a legend of Újpest FC, most famous for his part in taking the Hungarian national team to the 1938 World Cup Final. He was that tournament's second-highest scorer, behind Leonidas of Brazil. His first international cap came on December 2, 1936, when Hungary lost 6-2 against England. In total, he gained 39 caps for his country, scoring 32 goals. This makes him the eighth-highest goalscorer of all-time for the Hungarian national side. Zsengellér also played 325 games in the Hungarian league and scored 387 goals between 1935 and 1947, making him the third-highest goalscorer of all-time in the Hungarian league. He began his career at Salgotarjani TC, then moving to Újpest FC in 1936. Zsengellér spent 11 years serving Újpest, when in 1947 he joined Italian side AS Roma. In the 1949/50 season Zsengellér played for Ancona and he finished his carrier playing for Colombian Deportivo Samarios between 1951 and 1952. He was the Hungarian league's top-scorer in five seasons: 1938, 1939, 1943, 1944 and in the spring season of 1945.He was Europe's top goalscorer in 1939 and 1945. He died in 1999 aged 83. IFFHS named Zsengellér the 7th most successful Top Division Goal Scorer of all time.

2008-04-13T09:28:00.001-07:00

The New South Wales Crime Commission (Australia) is a statutory corporation which is established pursuant to the New South Wales Crime Commission Act 1985. This Act of Parliament was initially assented to as the State Drug Crime Commission Act. The main objectives of the New South Wales Crime Commission is to reduce the occurrence of illegal drug trafficking. An additional objective is to reduce the occurrence of organised and other crime. Recently the New South Wales Crime Commission has also taken on a charter of assisting with the investigation of terrorism related offences. The Board of the New South Wales Crime Commission consists of the Minister for Police David Campbell, the Commissioner of Police Ken Moroney, and the Commissioner of the New South Wales Crime Commission. The New South Wales Crime Commission works closely with the New South Wales Police Force.
Investigations
Confiscation

2008-04-12T09:53:00.001-07:00

Personal sports like golf, horse riding and tennis are gaining popularity as the city hosts international tournaments such as the WTA Istanbul Cup. For aerobics and bodybuilding, numerous fitness clubs are available. Paintball is a sport which has recently gained popularity and is practiced by two large clubs in the proximity of Istanbul. Martial arts and other Eastern disciplines and practices such as Aikido and Yoga can be exercised in several centers across the city. Istanbul also hosts the annual MTB races in the nearby Belgrad Forest and Büyükada Island. Two of the most prominent cycling teams of Turkey, namely the Scott/Marintek MTB Team and the Kron/Sektor Bikes/Efor Bisiklet MTB Team, are from Istanbul.
Istanbul hosts several annual motorsports events, such as the Formula One Turkish Grand Prix, the MotoGP Grand Prix of Turkey, the FIA World Touring Car Championship, the GP2 and the Le Mans Series 1000 km races at the Istanbul Park GP Racing Circuit.
From time to time Istanbul also hosts the Turkish leg of the F1 Powerboat Racing on the Bosphorus. Several annual sailing and yacht races take place on the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. The Golden Horn is where the rowing races take place. Major clubs like Galatasaray, Fenerbahçe and Beşiktaş, and major universities such as the Bosphorus University have rowing teams.
Air racing is very new to the city. On July 29, 2006, Istanbul hosted the 4th round of the spectacular Red Bull Air Race World Series above the Golden Horn.

Istanbul has 46 sister cities:

Archaeological Site of Troy · Historic Areas of Istanbul · Göreme and Rock Sites of Cappadocia · Great Mosque and Hospital of Divriği · Hittite Capital of Hattusa · Hierapolis-Pamukkale · Mount Nemrut in Commagene · Safranbolu · Xanthos-Letoon
1985 Athens · 1986 Florence · 1987 Amsterdam · 1988 West Berlin · 1989 Paris · 1990 Glasgow · 1991 Dublin · 1992 Madrid · 1993 Antwerp · 1994 Lisbon · 1995 Luxembourg City · 1996 Copenhagen · 1997 Thessaloniki · 1998 Stockholm · 1999 Weimar · 2000 Reykjavík · Bergen · Helsinki · Brussels · Prague · Kraków · Santiago de Compostela · Avignon · Bologna · 2001 Rotterdam · Porto · 2002 Bruges · Salamanca · 2003 Graz · 2004 Genoa · Lille · 2005 Cork · 2006 Patras · 2007 Luxembourg City and Greater Region · Sibiu · 2008 Liverpool · Stavanger · 2009 Linz · Vilnius · 2010 Essen · Pécs · Istanbul · 2011 Turku · Tallinn · 2012 Maribor · Guimarães ·

Almaty, Kazakhstan
Amman, Jordan
Athens, Greece
Baku, Azerbaijan
Barcelona, Spain
Beirut, Lebanon
Berlin, Germany
Budapest, Hungary
Buenos Aires, Argentina
Busan, South Korea
Cairo, Egypt
Caracas, Venezuela
Chittagong, Bangladesh
Cologne, Germany
Constanţa, Romania
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Durres, Albania
Florence, Italy
Havana, Cuba
Houston, USA
Isfahan, Iran
Jakarta, Indonesia
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Kabul, Afghanistan
Kazan, Russia
Khartoum, Sudan
Lahore, Pakistan
Mary, Turkmenistan
Odessa, Ukraine
Osh, Kyrgyzstan
Plovdiv, Bulgaria
Prague, Czech Republic
Rabat, Morocco
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
St. Petersburg, Russia
Samarqand, Uzbekistan
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina
Shanghai, People's Republic of China
Shimonoseki, Japan
Skopje, Republic of Macedonia
Stockholm, Sweden
Strasbourg, France
Tbilisi, Georgia
Venice, Italy
Warsaw, Poland
Xi'an, People's Republic of China
List of architectural structures in Istanbul
List of columns and towers in Istanbul
List of hospitals in Istanbul
List of Istanbulites
List of libraries in Istanbul
List of mayors of Istanbul
List of museums and monuments in Istanbul
List of schools in Istanbul
List of shopping malls in Istanbul
List of urban centers in Istanbul
List of universities in Istanbul
List of tallest buildings in Istanbul
Large Cities Climate Leadership Group
2004 Istanbul Summit
Istanbul Governor's Office
Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality
Istanbul City Guide
Explore Istanbul
Time Out Istanbul: Restaurants, cafés, pubs, night life, shopping and things to do in Istanbul
Biletix: Concerts, festivals, art exhibitions and other cultural events in Istanbul
Istanbul Kolay: Events, things to do and places to go in Istanbul (Turkish)
Istanbul travel guide from Wikitravel
WikiSatellite view of Istanbul at WikiMapia
Istanbul City Camera
Emporis Buildings Database: Historic and modern buildings of Istanbul

2008-04-11T09:52:00.001-07:00

Fenner Hall is a residential college of the Australian National University in Braddon, Canberra. Fenner Hall, named in honour of Emeritus Professor Frank Fenner, houses almost 500 students and is located on Canberra's Northbourne Avenue. It is the only college not on the ANU's main campus in Acton.

Student population
The present Head of Hall is Peter Fyfe. The Dean of Residents, currently Liam Cosgrave, is responsible for pastoral, social, administrative and disciplinary matters. The Dean is assisted by two Sub-Deans; (TBA), each of whom is responsible for one residential tower. Each floor has an appointed Senior Resident, responsible for organizing social events on the floor, monitoring students and informing the Dean of residents of any problems students are experiencing.
Residents elect a Fenner resident's committee, responsible for organizing sporting, art and social events within the hall and in with other university halls. The committee is also responsible for advocacy within hall and within the ANU. Currently the committee has 18 members.

Ongoing issues

Bruce Hall
Ursula Hall
Burgmann College
John XXIII College
Burton & Garran Hall
Graduate House
University House
University Lodge

2008-04-10T08:29:00.001-07:00

Biography
Neil was discovered while performing with his band, Rock Candy in 1980, and joined Mötley Crüe in 1981. That same year, he married his first wife, Beth Lynn and Mötley Crüe released its first album, Too Fast for Love. In 1983, Mötley Crüe released Shout at the Devil, a blockbuster success that established the band as one of the biggest acts of the 1980s. In 1984, after a tour with Ozzy Osbourne, Neil was involved in the above-referenced accident near Redondo Beach, California.
Beth Lynn and Neil divorced in 1985. Following the prison sentence after Razzle's death, Neil regrouped with Mötley Crüe to record Theatre of Pain (1985). The band subsequently recorded the hugely successful Girls, Girls, Girls (1987), and in April 1988, Neil married Sharise Ruddell, a mudwrestler. The band then released their highest-selling album, Dr. Feelgood, in 1989 after going through drug rehabilitation. The band's stint in rehab was due to Nikki Sixx's (bassist for Motley Crue), overdose on heroin in December 1987. Sixx was revived by two adrenaline shots to the heart, but the band's management nevertheless cancelled an upcoming European tour and insisted that all members of the group go to drug rehabilitation with the admonition: "If you guys go to Europe, at least one of you will be coming back in a bodybag."
Neil left Mötley Crüe to pursue a solo career in February 1992. According to rumors in the band's autobiography, The Dirt, he was fired because he was more interested in car racing than in the band (he was racing in the Indy Lights open wheel developmental series at the time). In 1992 he released his first solo offering, a single "You're Invited (But Your Friend Can't Come)" featured on the Encino Man soundtrack. Exposed, his first solo album which debuted at #13 on the Billboard charts, was released in mid-1993. The album featured Steve Stevens (formerly Billy Idol's guitarist and Atomic Playboys founder), Dave Marshall, Robbie Crane, and Vik Foxx.. It sold only about 300,000 copies in the US, just about as many as Mötley's 1994 Neil-less album Mötley Crüe with singer John Corabi (previously of The Scream). All previous Mötley Crüe albums had sold at least one million copies.
Sharise Ruddell and Neil divorced in 1993. Two years later on August 15, 1995, their daughter, Skylar Neil, died of cancer.
The same year, Carved In Stone, an indus-glam metal oriented album produced by the Dust Brothers, sold less than 100,000 copies in the US, and Neil's contract with Warner Bros. Records eventually came to an end. Some versions of the album feature "Skylar's Song," a tribute to Neil's daughter, written by himself only.
By 1997, both Neil's solo career and Mötley Crüe's fortunes were declining and he accepted their invitation to rejoin the band. They released the album Generation Swine which debuted at #4 on the Billboard charts. It wasn't long before tension erupted again, this time prompting Tommy Lee to leave the band. They replaced him with Randy Castillo, but things came to a halt when Castillo died from cancer in 2002.
In May 2000, Neil married Playboy Playmate Heidi Mark. They divorced in August 2001.
A regular customer of the Moonlite Bunny Ranch, in July 2003 Neil was charged with battery after a prostitute at the ranch alleged that he grabbed her around the throat and threw her against a wall. A year earlier, he had pleaded no contest to the charge that he had punched and knocked down record producer Michael Schuman.
Also in 2002, Neil was one of the cast members on the first season of The Surreal Life.
In 2003, Vince Neil was featured (as a solo act) in the "Rock Never Stops Tour" along with other '80s hard rock bands.
Neil married Lia Gerardini in January 2005. The ceremony was officiated by ordained minister and fellow cast member from The Surreal Life, MC Hammer.
In 2004, Vince appeared again on TV for the special Remaking Vince Neil, which showed him trying to recharge his solo career. He also recorded the single "Promise Me" produced by the acclaimed record producer Desmond Child which was never released commercially, but was rumored to be on his forthcoming solo album. However, it turned out to be Mötley Crüe that got the career boost as Neil and Tommy Lee put aside their differences and toured in support of the compilation album Red, White and Crüe which was supported by an extensive world-wide tour dubbed Carnival of Sins, The tour featured near-naked female acrobats, fire-breathers and a midget as part of the overall 'circus' atmosphere the band created.
Vince Neil is currently touring with his solo band, now consisting of Slaughter members Jeff Blando and Dana Strum, as well as drummer Zoltan Chaney.
Mötley Crüe will continue to tour, with several dates over the summer, and Vince will continue to tour with his solo band during his off time from Mötley Crüe. He is also currently working on a new studio album with Dana Strum, with whom he performed at glam metal festival Rocklahoma.

Music career
Vince had a small part in the film The Adventures of Ford Fairlane playing the part of Bobby Black, lead vocalist of the fictional rock band Black Plague of which also consisted of Carlos Cavazo, Randy Castillo, and Phil Soussan. Opening sequences of the film feature the band playing at Red Rocks Amphitheater where Bobby Black makes a grand entrance by swooping on stage via guide-wire. He then proceeds to die onstage under suspicious circumstances.

In Film

Albums

"You're Invited (But Your Friend Can't Come)", 1992
"Sister of Pain", 1993
"Can't Change Me", 1993
"Can't Have Your Cake and Eat It Too', 1993
"Skylar's Song", 1995
"Promise Me", 2005

2008-04-09T08:56:00.001-07:00

Coordinates: 19°55′38.58″S, 43°56′48.21″W
Clube Atlético Mineiro, usually known as Atlético Mineiro is a Brazilian football team from Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, founded on March 25, 1908. Atlético is one of the most traditional teams of Brazil. The first official match was played on March 21, 1909, against Sport Club Futebol. The team plays in black and white vertical striped shirts, black shorts and white socks.
The team is known nationwide as Galo, Portuguese for rooster, its mascot, and was the first official Brazilian champion, in 1971, besides having won two Copas Conmebol (South American Cups) in 1992 and 1997 and being the 2nd Division Brazilian Champions in 2006.

History

Titles

1950 - "Ice Champion" (symbolical title given by local press to the club due to a successful tour in Europe after II World War)
1976 - Torneo Esconde de Fenosa (La Coruña, Spain)
1977 - Trofeo Ciudad del Figo (Spain)
1980 - Trofeo Costa del Sol (Málaga, Spain)
1982 - Tournoi International Villa de Paris
1982 - Trofeo Villa del Bilbao (Spain)
1983 - Philips Cup Tournament of Berna (Switzerland)
1984 - Amsterdam Toernooi (Holland)
1990 - Trofeo Ramón de Carranza (Spain)
1992 - CONMEBOL Champion
1997 - Belo Horizonte City 100 Years Cup
1997 - CONMEBOL Champion International titles

1937 - "Campeão dos Campeões" (FBF) Champion of the Champions of Brazilian League
1971 - Brazilian League
1978 - Campeão dos Campeões do Brasil (Champion of the Champions of Brazilian League)
2006 - Brazilian League Série B National titles
Atlético is the biggest winner of Minas Gerais State Championship, also being runner-up 32 times.

39 State Championships (1915, 1926, 1927, 1931, 1932, 1936, 1938, 1939, 1941, 1942, 1946, 1947, 1949, 1950, 1952, 1953, 1954, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1960, 1963, 1970, 1976, 1978, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1991, 1995, 1999, 2000 and 2007). State titles

1975, 1976 and 1983 - Copa São Paulo de Juniores
2004, 2006 and 2007 - Torneo Città di Gradisca
2006 - Santiago Youth Cup Youth titles

1997 - Brazilian Champions
1998 - World Champions (InterContinental Cup)
1999 - Brazilian Champions Futsal
* Atlético was relegated to play the Brazilian League Série B in the next year.
** Atlético played and won the Brazilian League Série B, qualifying to play the Série A in 2007.

Atlético's performances in the Brazilian Championship year by year: Performances in Brazilian Championship

Current squad

Junior Team (Under-20)

Greatest and Famous Players

Reinaldo - Average 1.55 goal per match in 1977 (The best average in Brazilian League ever). 28 goals in 18 matches. 255 goals (best scorer for Atlético ever). Played in World Cup 78 (one goal, against Sweden). And scored the goal that put the Brazilian Team through World Cup 82. Nicknamed the king, Reinaldo is still remembered by the club supporters and received significant support from both the club and the fans when he faced prosecution for taking drugs in 1998.
Dario - also known as "Dadá Maravilha" (Marvel Dadá) . World Champion in 1970, Brazilian's League Scorer in 71 (Brazilian Champion, 15 goals), 72 (17 goals) and 76 (16 goals, Brazilian Champion playing in Internacional/RS).
Taffarel - World Cup 1994 Champion., Uefa cup - Supercup(99-00)Champion Galatasaray S.K.
Gilberto Silva - World Cup Champion 2002 - currently at Arsenal, England
Cicinho - Former Atlético youth, played for Atlético until 2003. Now at Real Madrid.
Mancini - Midfielder from Atlético's youth system. Played for the club from 1999 to 2003. His best season was in 2002, when he scored 15 goals in the Brazilian League. He was sold to A.S. Roma in 2003.
Toninho Cerezo - World Cup 82, Roma and Sampdoria player.
Eder - World Cup 1982, nicknamed O Canhão ("The Cannon") supposedly had one of the mightiest shots in the world and scored a goal against Soviet Union in the World Cup.
Edivaldo - World Cup 1986, died tragically at the age of 30.
Luizinho - World Cup 1982.
Murilo Silva - Won the Belfort Duarte Trophy. He went 10 years without receiving a red card.
Lincoln - Best Player in Bundesliga Nov/04 (according to Kicker magazine) - currently at Schalke 04
Ladislao Mazurkiewicz - Uruguay's National Team goalkeeper in World Cup 1970.
Dedé - currently plays for Borussia Dortmund.
Cláudio Caçapa - currently plays for Olympique Lyonnais.
Juliano Belletti - currently plays for Barça.
Afonso Alves - He is currently playing with SC Heerenveen and have scored 34 goals in 31 matches.
Zé do Monte - a midfield player in the 1950s.
Paulo Isidoro
Marques
Mário de Castro
Said
Jairo
Cincunegui
Ubaldo
William
Nívio Gabrich
Marcelo Oliveira
Grapete
Oldair
Lola
Spencer
Guliherme
Marinho - Série B Brazilian league champion.
Elzo
Éder Aleixo Football

Futsal
Atlético Mineiro's most famous soccer coach is Telê Santana.
The coaches with most matches in Atlético's history are:

Telê Santana - 434
Procópio Cardoso - 328
Barbatana - 227
Levir Culpi - 174
Ricardo Díez - 168 Coaches
Atlético's fan base is known in Brazil as one of the most passionate in the country. The nickname of the fan base is "Massa Atleticana" or simply, "Massa" (meaning mass, on the populational sense), which is known all over the country because of the club's high popularity in the Minas Gerais State. The club is traditionally known as the most popular club in Minas Gerais, even after the recent growth of Cruzeiro's fan base in the 1990s.
Atlético usually has one of the highest average attendances of the country. Since the Brazilian Championship began in 1971, Atlético was the first team to bring more than 10 million people to its matches. Since 1971, 11,743,767 people have watched Atlético play. The club is placed 3rd in the overall average home attendance of the Brazilian Championship, from 1972 to 2005, with 23,521 people per match; just behind Flamengo (on 25,898) and Bahia (on 24,218).
* Atletico played Serie B in 2006.
Atlético is also the club which brought more people to Mineirão; as of 2002, 20,887,391 people in 1,011 matches. Even with 51 less games than the second placed Cruzeiro, Atlético brought 1,542,884 people more. These stats do not include derbies.
Some ultra groups are:

Atlético's average attendances per year in Brazilian Championship:
Galoucura
Galo Metal
Uniformizada (TUA)
Esquadrão Atleticano
Netg@lo
Galosampa/SP
Candangalo/DF
Gargalo
Dragões da FAO
Máfia Atleticana Organizada (MAO)
Força Jovem Atleticana
Galo Prates
Galo Elite
Galodum
Super Força Viva
Galos de Porão
Medgalo
Eficigalo
Desempregalo
Movimento Galo 105' Fans
Atlético plays two derbies in Belo Horizonte City: Atlético vs. América and Atlético vs. Cruzeiro. Until the 1950s and early 1960s, the biggest derby of Minas Gerais State was Atlético vs. América, but from the mid 1960s on, Atlético vs. Cruzeiro became the biggest.
The Atlético vs. Cruzeiro derby has been played 450 times, with 185 wins for Atlético, 144 wins for Cruzeiro and 121 draws.
Atlético vs. América has been played 376 times, with 186 wins for Atlético, 100 wins for América and 90 draws.

Derbies
The team's mascot, the rooster, is one of the most well-known mascots in the country. It was created in the 1940s by Fernando Pierucetti, a cartoonist for "A Folha de Minas" newspaper. He was designated to design a mascot for each of the three greatest clubs in Belo Horizonte. According to Pierucetti, the symbol of Atlético was the rooster because the team used to play with plenty of passion, and would never give up until the end of each match, just like roosters used in cockfights. Another reason is that the most popular hen breed raised in Brazil has mostly black-and-white feathers, thus making the rooster suitable.

The Rooster (Galo)

1908 to 1910 - Margival Mendes Leal
1911 to 1911 - Aleixanor Alves Pereira
1912 to 1913 - Jair Pinto dos Reis
1914 to 1914 - João Luiz Morethzon
1915 to 1916 - Roberto Xavier Azevedo
1917 to 1917 - Nilo Rosemburg
1918 (6 months) - Jorge Dias Pena
1919 (6 months) - Antônio Antunes
1920 to 1920 - Alvaro Felicíssimo
1921 to 1922 - Alfredo Felicíssimo de Paula Furtado
1923 to 1923 - Roberto Xavier de Azevedo
1924 to 1925 - Alfredo Furtado
1926 to 1930 - Leandro Castilho de Moura Costa
1931 to 1931 - Anibal Matos
1932 to 1932 - Afonso Ferreira Paulino
1933 to 1938 - Tomáz Naves
1939 to 1939 - Casildo Quintino dos Santos
1940 (5 months) - Sálvio Noronha
1940 to 1941 (2 months) - Hélio Soares de Moura
1942 to 1942 - Olímpyo Mourão de Miranda
1943 to 1944 - Alberto Pinheiro
1945 to 1945 - Edward Nogueira
1946 to 1949 - Gregoriano Canedo
1949 (3 months) - Geraldo Vasconcelos
1949 (6 meses) - Osvaldo Silva
1950 to 1951 - José Cabral
1952 to 1953 - José Francisco de Paula Júnior
1954 to 1955 - Mário de Andrade Gomes
1956 to 1957 - José Francisco de Paula Júnior
1958 to 1959 - Nelson Campos
1960 to 1960 - Antônio Álvares da Silva
1961 - Edgard Neves
1962 to 1963 - Fábio Fonseca e Silva
1964 (4 months) - José Ramos Filho
1964 (8 months) - Lauro Pires de Carvalho
1966 to 1967 (8 months) - Eduardo Catão Magalhães Pinto
1967 (4 months) - Fábio Fonseca e Silva
1968 to 1969 - Carlos Alberto de Vasconcellos Naves
1970 to 1973 - Nelson Campos
1973 (6 months) - Rubens Silveira
1974 to 1975 - Nelson Campos
1976 to 1979 - Walmir Pereira da Silva
1980 to 1985 - Elias Kalil
1986 - Marum
1986 to 1988 - Nelson Campos
1989 to 1994 - Afonso Araújo Paulino (Aníbal Goulart for sometime)
1995 to 1998 - Paulo Curi
1999 to 2001 - Nélio Brant
2001 to 2003 - Ricardo Annes Guimarães (during the license of Nélio Brant)
2004 to 2006 - Ricardo Annes Guimarães
2007 to ... - Luiz Otávio Ziza Valadares Stadium information

President - Luiz Otávio Ziza Valadares
Financens Vice-President - Renato Moraes Salvador Silva
Legal Department Vice-President - Roberto Soares de Vasconcellos Paes
Vice-President - Gil César Moreira de Abreu
Vice-President - Ronaldo Vasconcellos
Professional Football Team Department Coordinator - Beto Arantes
Amateur Football Team Coordinator - André Figueiredo
Physyo Department Coordinator - Dr. Euller Pace Lasmar
Patrimony Department Coordinator - Geraldo Leite

2008-04-08T10:38:00.001-07:00

Geography
Norris Green was built in the 1920s on land donated to the city by Lord Derby, who was at the time resident at nearby Knowsley Hall. He donated the land on the provision that no public houses were to be built within the estate. There remains no pubs inside the estate to this day.

History
Homes on the periphery (outer edge) of the estate and on the main routes through the area are largely brick and well-built, with those on minor routes and residential roads are of concrete construction. It is this concrete group of housing which is considered defective.
The estate was subject to large scale upgrading and renovation in the early 1970s, when still largely under local council ownership.
A number of new homes are planned to be constructed on derelict land cleared following the demolition of defective houses on the "Boot Estate".

Gangs

Steve Coppell, former Manchester United football player and current manager of Reading, was born here.
Actor Geoffrey Hughes, who found fame in Coronation Street, and later Heartbeat and Keeping Up Appearances, was born in Norris Green.
Ian McCulloch, lead singer of the prominent Liverpool band Echo & the Bunnymen grew up on Parthenon Drive in Norris Green. Also, a track from their 2006 album Siberia is titled Parthenon Drive.
Joe Royle, former Everton player and Manchester City manager, was also from the area.

2008-04-07T08:13:00.001-07:00

John Stuart Blackie (28 July 1809 - 2 March 1895) was a Scottish scholar and man of letters. He was born in Glasgow, and educated at the New Academy and afterwards at the Marischal College, in Aberdeen, where his father was manager of the Commercial Bank.
After attending classes at Edinburgh University (1825-1826), Blackie spent three years at Aberdeen as a student of theology. In 1829 he went to Germany, and after studying at Göttingen and Berlin (where he came under the influence of Heeren, Ottfried Muller, Schleiermacher, Neander and Bockh) he accompanied Bunsen to Italy and Rome. The years spent abroad extinguished his former wish to enter the Church, and at his father's desire he gave himself up to the study of law.
He had already, in 1824, been placed in a lawyer's office, but only remained there six months. By the time he was admitted a member of the Faculty of Advocates (1834) he had acquired a strong love of the classics and a taste for letters in general. A translation of Faust, which he published in 1834, met with considerable success, winning the approbation of Carlyle. After a year or two of desultory literary work he was (May 1839) appointed to the newly-instituted chair of Humanity (Latin) in the Marischal College.
Difficulties arose in the way of his installation, owing to the action of the Presbytery on his refusing to sign unreservedly the Confession of Faith; but these were eventually overcome, and he took up his duties as professor in November 1841. In the following year he married. From the first his professorial lectures were conspicuous for the unconventional enthusiasm with which he endeavoured to revivify the study of the classics; and his growing reputation, added to the attention excited by a translation of Aeschylus which he published in 1850, led to his appointment in 1852 to the professorship of Greek at Edinburgh University, in succession to George Dunbar, a post which he continued to hold for thirty years.
He was somewhat erratic in his methods, but his lectures were a triumph of influential personality. A journey to Greece in 1853 prompted his essay On the Living Language of the Greeks, a favorite theme of his, especially in his later years; he adopted for himself a modern Greek pronunciation, and before his death he endowed a travelling scholarship to enable students to learn Greek at Athens.
Scottish nationality was another source of enthusiasm with him; and in this connection he displayed real sympathy with highland home life and the grievances of the crofters. The foundation of the Celtic chair at Edinburgh University was mainly due to his efforts. In-spite of the many calls upon his time he produced a considerable amount of literary work, usually on classical or Scottish subjects, including some poems and songs of no mean order.
Blackie was a Radical and Scottish nationalist in politics, of a fearlessly independent type; possessed of great conversational powers and general versatility, his picturesque eccentricity made him one of the characters of the Edinburgh of the day, and a well-known figure as be went about in his plaid, worn shepherd-wise, wearing a broadbrimmed hat, and carrying a big stick.
His published works include (besides several volumes of verse) Homer and the Iliad (1866), maintaining the unity of the poems; Four Phases of Morals: Socrates, Aristotle, Christianity, Utilitarianism (1871); Essay on Self-Culture (1874); Horae Hellenicae (1874); The Language and Literature of the Scottish Highlands (1876); The Natural History of Atheism (1877); The Wise Men of Greece (1877); Lay Sermons (1881); Altavona (1882); The Wisdom of Goethe (1883); The Scottish Highlanders and the Land Laws (1885); Life of Burns (1888); Scottish Song (1889); Essays on Subjects of Moral and Social Interest (1890); Christianity and the Ideal of Humanity (1893). Amongst his political writings, may be mentioned a pamphlet On Democracy (1867), On Forms of Government (1867), and Political Tracts (1868).
He died in Edinburgh.

2008-04-06T10:38:00.001-07:00

Acts of English Parliament to 1601 Acts of English Parliament to 1641 Acts and Ordinances (Interregnum) to 1660 Acts of English Parliament to 1699 Acts of English Parliament to 1706 Acts of Parliament of Scotland Acts of Irish Parliament to 1700 Acts of Irish Parliament to 1800
1707–1719 | 1720–1739 | 1740–1759 1760–1779 | 1780–1800 | 1801–1819 1820–1839 | 1840–1859 | 1860–1879 1880–1899 | 1900–1919 | 1920–1939 1940–1959 | 1960–1979 | 1980–1999 2000–Present
The Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) was passed in the United Kingdom on 8 August 1914, during the early weeks of World War I. It gave the government wide-ranging powers during the war period, such as censorship and the power to requisition buildings or land needed for the war effort. Some of the things the British public were not allowed to do included: flying a kite, lighting a bonfire, buying binoculars, feeding wild animals bread, discussing naval and military matters or buying alcohol on public transport. Alcoholic beverages were watered down. The DORA ushered in a variety of authoritarian social control mechanisms including some that are still in use today, such as the Winston Churchill supported British Summer Time which was enacted in May 1916 as a novel device for boosting wartime production.
Though some of the things DORA may seem strange, they did have their purposes. Flying a kite or lighting a bonfire could attract Zeppelins, feeding wild animals was a waste of food since rationing was introduced in 1917. The first person to be arrested under DORA was John Maclean, a Marxist and Clydeside revolutionary, for uttering statements deemed prejudiced against recruiting. He was fined £5 but refused and spent 5 nights in prison. Here is an excerpt of the Act:
Be it enacted ... as follows:
(1) His Majesty in Council has power during the continuance of the present war to issue regulations for securing the public safety and the defence of the realm, and as to the powers and duties for that purpose of the Admiralty and Army Council and of the members of His Majesty's forces and other persons acting in his behalf; and may by such regulations authorise the trial by courts-martial, or in the case of minor offences by courts of summary jurisdiction, and punishment of persons committing offences against the regulations and in particular against any of the provisions of such regulations designed:

(a) to prevent persons communicating with the enemy or obtaining information for that purpose or any purpose calculated to jeopardise the success of the operations of any of His Majesty's forces or the forces of his allies or to assist the enemy; or

(b) to secure the safety of His Majesty's forces and ships and the safety of any means of communication and of railways, ports, and harbours; or

(c) to prevent the spread of false reports or reports likely to cause disaffection to His Majesty or to interfere with the success of His Majesty's forces by land or sea or to prejudice His Majesty's relations with foreign powers; or

(d) to secure the navigation of vessels in accordance with directions given by or under the authority of the Admiralty; or

(e) otherwise to prevent assistance being given to the enemy or the successful prosecution of the war being endangered.

(3) It shall be lawful for the Admiralty or Army Council:

(a) to require that there shall be placed at their disposal the whole or any part of the output of any factory or workshop in which arms, ammunition, or warlike stores and equipment, or any articles required for the production thereof, are manufactured;

(b) to take possession of, and use for the purpose of, His Majesty's naval or military service any such factory or workshop or any plant thereof;

(a) to prevent persons communicating with the enemy or obtaining information for that purpose or any purpose calculated to jeopardise the success of the operations of any of His Majesty's forces or the forces of his allies or to assist the enemy; or
(b) to secure the safety of His Majesty's forces and ships and the safety of any means of communication and of railways, ports, and harbours; or
(c) to prevent the spread of false reports or reports likely to cause disaffection to His Majesty or to interfere with the success of His Majesty's forces by land or sea or to prejudice His Majesty's relations with foreign powers; or
(d) to secure the navigation of vessels in accordance with directions given by or under the authority of the Admiralty; or
(e) otherwise to prevent assistance being given to the enemy or the successful prosecution of the war being endangered.
(a) to require that there shall be placed at their disposal the whole or any part of the output of any factory or workshop in which arms, ammunition, or warlike stores and equipment, or any articles required for the production thereof, are manufactured;
(b) to take possession of, and use for the purpose of, His Majesty's naval or military service any such factory or workshop or any plant thereof;

2008-04-05T08:47:00.001-07:00

This article is part of the series: Politics and government of Portugal
In Portugal, the post of Prime Minister (Portuguese: Primeiro Ministro, pron. IPA: [pɾi'mɐiɾu mɨ'niʃtɾu] or [mi'niʃtɾu]) is the head of the country's Government. He coordinates the actions of all ministers, represents the Government as a whole, reports his actions and is controlled by the Assembly of the Republic, and keeps the President of the Republic informed.
There is no limit to the number of mandates as Prime Minister. He is appointed by the President of the Republic, after the legislative elections and after an audience with every leader of a party represented at the Assembly. It is usual for the leader of the party most voted in the elections to be named Prime Minister.
Before the Carnation Revolution of 1974 the competences of the Prime Minister were different. Since the 1820 Liberal Revolution of Porto, liberalism and parliamentarism were installed in the country. In the first liberal period, there were three to six secretaries of state with equal position in the hierarchy, but with the Secretary of State of Internal Affairs of the Kingdom (usually known by Minister of the Kingdom) occupying a prominent position. Occasionally there was a Minister Assistant to the Dispatch, a coordinator of all secretaries of state, and with a post similar to that of a prime minister. After a brief absolutistic restoration, the second liberalism started. With the beginning of the Constitutional Monarchy, post of President of the Council of Ministers was created. The Presidents of the Council were clearly the heads of government of the kingdom holding the executive power that absolutistic monarchs had, but were restricted by the controlling power of a National Congress.
With the advent of the Republic in the 5 October 1910 revolution, the Prime Minister was renamed President of the Ministry. During this period the heads of government were under the strong power of the parliament and oftenly fell due to parliamentary turmoils and social instability. With the 28 May 1926 coup d'état, and eventually, after the formation of the Estado Novo quasi-fascist dictatorial regime of António de Oliveira Salazar, the Prime Minister was again named President of the Council of Ministers, and was nominally the most important figure in the country. First Salazar and then Marcello Caetano occupied this post for almost 42 years. With the Carnation Revolution came the Prime Minister, which replaced the President of the Council.

Constitution
President

Aníbal Cavaco Silva
Assembly of the Republic
Government
- Prime Minister
  - José Sócrates
    Council of Ministers
    Supreme Court of Justice
    Constitutional Court
    Council of State
    Elections: 2006 - 2005
    Political Parties
    Subdivisions
    EU Politics
    Foreign relations Numbering
    
    Constitutional Monarchy
    
    Third Republic

2008-04-04T09:06:00.001-07:00

A Higher National Certificate (HNC) is a higher education qualification in the United Kingdom.
In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, the HNC is a BTEC qualification awarded by Edexcel, and in Scotland, an HNC is a Higher National awarded by the Scottish Qualifications Authority.

2008-04-03T09:03:00.001-07:00

Alfred Charles William Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Northcliffe ( 15 July 1865 - 14 August 1922) rose from childhood poverty to become a powerful newspaper and publishing magnate, famed for buying stolid, unprofitable newspapers and transforming (some say demeaning) them to make them lively and entertaining for the mass market. During his lifetime, he exercised vast influence over British popular opinion. Unfortunately, megalomania contributed to a nervous breakdown shortly before his death.
Although born near Dublin, Harmsworth was educated at the Stamford School in Lincolnshire, England.
Beginning as a free-lance journalist, he founded his first newspaper, Answers (original title: Answers to Correspondents), and was later assisted by his brother Harold, who was adept at business matters. Harmsworth had an intuitive sense for what the reading public wanted to buy, and began a series of cheap but successful periodicals, such as Comic Cuts (tagline: "Amusing without being Vulgar") and the journal Forget-Me-Not for women. From these periodicals, he built what was then the largest periodical publishing empire in the world, Amalgamated Press.
Harmsworth was an early pioneer of tabloid journalism. He bought several failing newspapers and made them into an enormously profitable chain, primarily by appealing to the popular taste. He began with The Evening News in 1894, and then merged two Edinburgh papers to form the Edinburgh Daily Record. On 4 May 1896, he began publishing the Daily Mail in London, which was a hit; its taglines included "the busy man's daily journal" and "the penny newspaper for one halfpenny". The Daily Mail held the world record for daily circulation until Harmsworth's death. Harmsworth then transformed a Sunday newspaper, the Weekly Dispatch, into the Sunday Dispatch, then the highest circulation Sunday newspaper in Britain. Harmsworth also founded the The Daily Mirror in 1903, and rescued the financially desperate The Observer and The Times in 1905 and 1908, respectively. In 1908, he also acquired The Sunday Times.
In 1905 Harmsworth was given the title of Baron Northcliffe, of the Isle of Thanet and in 1918 advanced to Viscount Northcliffe, of St Peters in the County of Kent, for his service as the head of the British war mission in the United States[1].
Lord Northcliffe was also involved in politics. For example, his newspapers — especially The Times — reported the Shell Crisis of 1915 with such zeal that it brought down the wartime government of Prime Minister Herbert Henry Asquith, forcing him to form a coalition government. Lord Northcliffe's newspapers led the fight for creating a Minister of Munitions (first held by David Lloyd George) and helped to bring about Lloyd George's appointment as Prime Minister in 1916. Lloyd George offered Lord Northcliffe a post in his cabinet, but Northcliffe declined and was appointed Director for Propaganda.
In 1903, Harmsworth founded the Harmsworth Cup, the first international award for motorboat racing. Similar to the Olympic Games, each entry in the race is supposed to represent a nation.

2008-04-02T08:44:00.001-07:00

First Minister's Questions is the name given to the weekly questioning of the leaders of devolved administrations in the United Kingdom. First Minister's Questions works in a similar way to Prime Minister's Questions in the House of Commons.

Wales

Northern Ireland Executive
Scottish Executive
Welsh Assembly Government

2008-04-01T08:21:00.001-07:00

Claude Chabrol (pronounced [klod ʃaˈbʁɔl] in French) (born June 24, 1930, Paris) is a French film director and has become well-known since his first film, Le Beau Serge (1958) for his chilling tales of murder, including Le Boucher (1970). He is credited with starting the nouvelle vague French film movement.
He was a member of the French New Wave cinema group. Chabrol and Éric Rohmer wrote Hitchcock (Paris: Éditions Universitaires, 1957) a study of the films made by director Alfred Hitchcock through the film The Wrong Man (1957).
He divorced Agnes, his first wife, to marry the actress Stéphane Audran, with whom he had a son, actor Thomas Chabrol. His third wife is Aurore Paquiss.

Filmography

Le Beau Serge (1958) (Prix Jean Vigo)
Les Cousins (1959)
À double tour (1959)
Les Bonnes Femmes (1960)
Les Godelureaux (1961)
Les sept Péchés capitaux (sketch) (1962)
L'Oeil du Malin (1962)
Ophelia (1963)
Bluebeard (1963)
Les plus belles escroqueries du monde (sketch) (1964)
Le Tigre aime la chair fraiche (1964)
Paris vu par... (sketch) (1965)
Marie-Chantal contre docteur Kha (1965)
Le Tigre se parfume à la dynamite (1965)
La Ligne de démarcation (1966)
Le Scandale (1967)
La Route de Corinthe (1967)
Les Biches (1968)
La Femme infidèle (1969)
Que la bête meure (1969)
Le Boucher (1970)
La Rupture (1970)
La Décade prodigieuse (1971) (based on Ten Days Wonder by Ellery Queen)
Docteur Popaul (1972)
Les Noces rouges (1973)
Nada (1974)
Une Partie de plaisir (1975)
Les Innocents aux mains sales (1975)
Les Magiciens (1976)
Folies bourgeoises (1976)
Alice ou la Dernière Fugue (1977)
Les Liens de sang (1978)
Violette Nozière (1978)
Le Cheval d'orgueil (1980)
Les Fantômes du chapelier (1982)
Le Sang des autres (1984)
Poulet au vinaigre (1985)
Inspecteur Lavardin (1986)
Masques (1987)
Le Cri du hibou (1988, from a novel by Patricia Highsmith)
Une Affaire de femmes (1989)
Jours tranquilles à Clichy (1990)
Docteur M (1990)
Madame Bovary (1991)
Betty (1992)
L'Œil de Vichy (1993)
L'Enfer (1994)
La Cérémonie (1995)
Rien ne va plus (1997)
Merci pour le chocolat (2000), prix Louis-Delluc
La fleur du mal (2002)
La Demoiselle d'honneur (2004)
L'ivresse du pouvoir (2006)
La fille coupée en deux (2007)

2008-03-29T08:17:00.000-07:00

The following is a list of ethnic groups in China.
The Han Chinese are the largest ethnic group based on the 2000 census, where some 91.5% of the population was classified as Han Chinese (~1.2 billion).
Besides the majority Han Chinese, China recognizes 55 other "nationalities" or ethnic groups, numbering approximately 105 million persons, mostly concentrated in the northwest, north, northeast, south, and southwest but with some in central interior areas.
The major minority ethnic groups are Zhuang (16.1 million), Manchu (10.6 million), Hui (9.8 million), Miao (8.9 million), Uyghur (8.3 million), Tujia (8 million), Yi (7.7 million), Mongol (5.8 million), Tibetan (5.4 million), Buyei (2.9 million), Dong (2.9 million), Yao (2.6 million), Korean (1.9 million), Bai (1.8 million), Hani (1.4 million), Kazakh (1.2 million), Li (1.2 million), and Dai (1.1 million).

Taiwanese aborigines
This is a list of ethnic groups in China that are not officially recognised by the government of the People's Republic of China.

Gejia (革家人)
Khmu (克木人)
Kucong (Yellow Lahu/Lahu Shi (苦聪人)
Mang (芒人)
Deng (僜人)
Sherpas (夏尔巴人)
Bajia (八甲人)
Yi (羿人)
Youtai (犹太, Jews) Ethnic groups in Hong Kong and Macau

Ethnic minorities in China
Undistinguished ethnic groups in China
Tai ethnic groups in China
Ethnic groups in Taiwan
Zhonghua Minzu
Taiwanese aborigines
Undistinguished ethnic groups in China
Demographics of the People's Republic of China and Taiwan
Chinese macro-regions - Socio-economic regions of China

2008-03-28T08:11:00.001-07:00

A cold seep (sometimes called a cold vent) is an area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulfide, methane and other hydrocarbon-rich fluid seepage occurs. Cold seeps are distinct from hydrothermal vents: the former's emissions are of the same temperature as the surrounding seawater, whereas the latter's emissions are super-heated. Cold seeps constitute a biome supporting several endemic species.
Entire communities of light independent organisms - known as extremophiles - develop in and around cold seeps, most relying on a symbiotic relationship with chemoautotrophic bacteria. These prokaryotes, both Archaea and Eubacteria, process sulfides and methane through chemosynthesis into chemical energy. Higher organisms, namely vesicomyid clams and siboglinid tube worms use this energy to power their own life processes, and in exchange provide both safety and a reliable source of food for the bacteria. Other bacteria form mats, blanketing sizable areas in the process.
Unlike hydrothermal vents, which are volatile and ephemeral environments, cold seeps emit at a slow and dependable rate. Likely owing to the differing temperatures and stability, cold seep organisms are much longer-lived than those inhabiting hydrothermal vents. Indeed, recent research has revealed that the seep tubeworm Lamellibrachia luymesi may be the longest living noncolonial invertebrate known, with a minimum lifespan of between 170 and 250 years.
Cold seeps were first discovered in 1984 by Dr. Charles Paull in the Gulf of Mexico at a depth of 3,200 metres. Since then, seeps have been discovered in other parts of the world's oceans, including the Monterey Canyon just off Monterey Bay, California, the Sea of Japan, off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica, in the Atlantic off of Africa, in waters off the coast of Alaska, and under an ice shelf in Antarctica [1]. The deepest seep community known is found in the Japan trench at a depth of 7326 m.
Cold seeps develop unique topography over time, where reactions between methane and seawater create carbonate rock formations and reefs. These reactions may also be dependent on bacterial activity. Ikaite, a hydrous calcium carbonate, can be associated with oxidizing methane at cold seeps.

2008-03-27T08:47:00.001-07:00

The description Carinthian Slovenes (German: Kärntner Slowenen; Slovenian: Koroški Slovenci) is used to refer to the autochthonous, Slovene-speaking population group in the Austrian province of Carinthia. The Carinthian Slovenes send representatives to the National Ethnic Groups Advisory Council. The status of the minority group is guaranteed in principle constitutionally and under international law.

Migration period
Under Charlemagne, Karantania became part of the Frankish Empire and, in consequence, of the Holy Roman Empire. As a result of this, German noble families became gradually prevalent, while the population remained Slovene. Finally, the Bavarii moved into Carinthia as settlers. They settled the hitherto sparsely populated areas, such as wooded regions and high valleys. Only here and there did this lead to the direct displacement of Slavs (the development to being Slovenians did not take place until later). However, a process of assimilation of Slovenes by Germans began. In the 19th century, about two thirds of Carinthians had in this way become German. Nevertheless, Klagenfurt, at this time a German city with Slovene surroundings, was the predominant Slovene city of learning.

Middle Ages and modern times
With the emergence of the nationalist movement in the late Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, there was an acceleration in the process of assimilation; at the same time the conflict between national groups became more intense.
With the end of World War I the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs attempted to occupy the districts that remained Slovene. This issue also split the Slovene population. In the plebiscite zone in which the Slovene-speaking proportion of the population constituted about 70 per cent, 59 per cent of those who voted at the plebiscite voted to remain in Austria. In the run-up to the plebiscite the provincial government gave an assurance that it would promote and support the retention of Slovene culture. These conciliatory promises, in addition to economic and other reasons, led to about 40 per cent of the Slovenes living in the plebiscite zone voting to retain the unity of the province. Voting patterns were, however, different by region; in many municipalities there were majorities who voted to become part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes.
As everywhere else in Europe, nationalism grew in the Interwar period. Promises made were broken, assimilation was forced by dividing the Slovenes into Slovenes and Windisch, even by denying that their language was Slovene at all. This culminated in targeted persecution in the Third Reich. Certainly it was possible to put oneself on good terms with the regime by professing to be Windisch with the associated promise to assimilate. At the same time, many Slovenes took part in Tito's partisans' resistance, who after the war again tried to occupy parts of Carinthia, but withdrew under pressure from the British occupying forces. In view of this extreme development on both sides, the atmosphere between the two national groups was extremely tense after the Second World War. The Slovene language continued to retreat steadily.
On 15 May 1955 the Austrian State Treaty was signed, in Article 7 of which the "rights of the Slovene and Croat minorities" in Austria were regulated. In 1975 the electoral grouping of the Slovene national group (Enotna Lista) only just failed to gain entry to the provincial parliament. Before the next elections in 1979 the originally single constituency of Carinthia was divided into four constituencies. The area of settlement of the Carinthian Slovenes was divided up and these parts were in turn combined with purely German-speaking parts of the province. In the new constituencies the Slovene-speaking proportion of the population was reduced in such a way that in reality it was no longer possible for the representatives of national minorities to succeed in getting into the provincial parliament. The Austrian Centre for Ethnic Groups and representatives of the Carinthian Slovenes saw in this way of proceeding the successful attempt to reduce the political influence of the Slovene-speaking national minority group.
In the 1970s the situation again escalated in the so-called signpost dispute, but thereafter became less tense. However, continuing up to the present, individual statements by Slovene politicians are interpreted by parts of the German-speaking population as Slovene territorial claims, and they therefore regard the territorial integrity of Carinthia as still not being guaranteed. This interpretation is rejected both by the Slovene government and by the organisations representing the interests of the Carinthian Slovenes. The territorial integrity of Carinthia and its remaining part of Austria are said not to be placed in question at all.

19th and 20th centuries
Since the 1990s a growing interest in Slovene on the part of German-speaking Carinthians has been perceptible, but this could turn out to be too late in view of the increase in the proportion of old people. The success of Jörg Haider (provincial prime minister of Carinthia since 1999) in making a political issue out of the signpost dispute shows that the conflict is, as before, still present.

The 21st century
At the end of the 19th century, the Carinthian Slovenes comprised approximately one quarter to one third of the total population of Carinthia. In the course of the 20th century the numbers declined, especially because of the pressure to assimilate, to an official figure of 2.3 per cent of the total population. As the pressure from German came above all from the west and north, the present area of settlement lies in the south and east of the province, in the valleys known in German as Jauntal, Keutschacher and Rosental, the lowest Lavanttal, and the lower Gailtal (to about as far as Tröpolach). Köstenberg and Diex form approximately the most northerly points. The municipalities with the highest proportion of Carinthian Slovenes are Zell (89%), Globasnitz (42%) and Eisenkappel-Vellach (38%), according to the 2001 census. The actual number of Carinthian Slovenes is disputed, as both the representatives of Slovene organisations and the representatives of Carinthian traditional organisations describe the census results as inaccurate. The former point to the, in part, strongly fluctuating census results in individual municipalities, which in their opinion correlate strongly with political tensions in national minority questions. Consequently the results would underestimate the actual number of Carinthian Slovenes. The South Carinthian municipality of Gallizien is cited as an example: according to the 1951 census the proportion of Slovene speakers was 80 per cent, whereas in 1961 with simultaneously an absence of significant migratory movements and with approximately the same population, the proportion was only 11 per cent.

As a further example the results of the former municipality of Mieger (now in the municipality of Ebental), are cited, which in 1910 and 1923 had a Slovene-speaking population of 96 per cent and 51 per cent respectively, but in 1934 only 3 per cent. After World War II and a relaxation of relations between both population groups, the municipality showed a result of 91.5 per cent in the 1951 census. Ultimately, in 1971 in the run-up to the so-called Carinthian signpost dispute, the number of Slovenes was reduced again to 24 per cent. Representatives of the Carinthian Slovenes regard the census results as the absolute lower limit. They refer to an investigation carried out in 1991 in bilingual parishes, in the process of which there was a question about the colloquial language used by members of the parish. The results of this investigation (50,000 members of national minority groups) differed significantly from those of the census that took place in the same year (about 14,000). Carinthian traditional organisations estimate the actual number of self-declared Slovenes as being 2,000 to 5,000 persons.

Area of settlement and proportion of the population
The Carinthian dialect branch of Slovene (koroško) extends beyond the present borders of Carinthia. It is spoken in the bilingual areas that until 1918 formed the Duchy of Carinthia (i.e. in addition to the present province, the upper Kanaltal around Tarvisio as well as the Mežiška Valley in Slovenia). Additionally, the Carinthian-Slovene form of dialect is spoken in Rateče (known in German as Ratschach) in Slovenia very near the border with Italy, a locality of the Oberkrain (Gorenjska), as well as along the upper Drava river in Lower Styria. It can be divided into sub-dialects spoken in the Jauntal, Rosental, and Gailtal.
The Obir dialect, which is influenced by the dialect of the Gorenjska, can be regarded as a subgroup of the Jauntal dialect. The Carinthian dialects are particularly unadulterated. In the present German-speaking areas the Slavonic basis of place and pasture names as far as into the upper Mölltal can be demonstrated. German and Slovene have in any case exercised a reciprocal influence in tone and vocabulary on each other in the course of the centuries.
(See also: Slovenian dialects.)

Dialects
The description "Windisch" was originally applied in the German-speaking area to all Slavonic languages and in particular in southern Austria to the Slovene language. It is still used in part (predominantly by German nationalist circles) as an overall term for Slovene dialects spoken in Carinthia. However, because of the historical associations of the term, "a German word with pejorative overtones", it is rejected by a large part of the Carinthian Slovene population. In censuses Windisch is counted in addition to Slovene as a separate language category.

The term Windisch
In early 1981 the novel Der Zögling Tjaž by Florjan Lipuš appeared in a German translation by Peter Handke, which led to Handke being described by the Wiener Extrablatt as "Article 7 personified" for this literary achievement. In addition to Lipuš, Handke later translated Gustav Januš. However, Slovene literature in Carinthia is made up not only of Januš and Lipuš, but also a number of other authors. Mirko Kumer, Kristo Srienc and Valentin Polanšek are part of the tradition, but in addition to Lipuš, Janko Messner is part of a small, more innovative group that is nevertheless committed to the literary tradition. Lipus himself has developed into an outstanding belletrist. Younger prose authors include Jože Blajs, Martin Kuchling, Kristijan Močilnik and the internationally known Janko Ferk. There is a considerable number of lyric poets, Milka Hartman being outstanding. Anton Kuchling is part of this generation. Gustav Januš and Andrej Kokot, as well as those lyric poets not currently writing, namely Erik Prunč and Karel Smolle, form the next generation. A group including Janko Ferk, Maja Haderlap, Franc Merkac, Jani Oswald, Vincenc Gotthardt, Fabjan Hafner and Cvetka Lipuš that formed itself predominantly around the literary periodical "Mladje" (Youth) follows these lyric poets. Rezka Kanzian and Tim O. Wüster, whose works have not (as of 2006) appeared in books of their own, are part of the youngest generation. Slovene literature in Carinthia since the Second World War has displayed a clear will to live; in the 2000s it is an emancipated literature free from provincialism. Johann (Janez) Strutz in particular has rendered outstanding services to the literature of the Carinthian Slovenes from the point of view of the sociology, theory and history of literature. His book Profile der neuen slowenischen Literatur in Kärnten ("Profiles of modern Slovene literature in Carinthia"), published in 1998 in a revised and extended edition, is a much respected standard work.

Literature after the Second World War
In 1848 the Ministry of Education decreed that compulsory school pupils should be taught in their respective native language. The efforts of German nationalist forces in Carinthia to change this regulation were unsuccessful until the end of the 1860s. Between 1855 and 1869 the Slovene compulsory school system lay in the hands of the Roman Catholic Church, which was traditionally friendly to the Slovenes. From 1869 there was a major alteration in the instructions regarding the use of the native language in teaching, resulting from the Imperial law on state schools, as from this time the authority maintaining the school could lay down the language of instruction. This led to a large proportion of the compulsory schools being converted into so-called utraquist schools, in which Slovene was regarded as an auxiliary language to be used in teaching only until the pupils had acquired an adequate command of German.

School and kindergarten system
The Christian cultural association (Christlicher Kulturverband) and the council of Christian Slovenes (Rat der Kärntner Slowenen/Narodni svet koroških Slovencev) have endowed an annual award, the Einspieler prize (named after the founder of the Hermagoras publishing company, Andrej Einspieler), for persons who have rendered outstanding services to the cause of co-existence. The prize has been awarded to, among others, the industrialist Herbert Liaunig and the University of Klagenfurt professor of general and diachronic linguistics, Heinz Dieter Pohl.

Lobbying

Janko Ferk – judge and writer (b. 1958)
Peter Handke – writer (b. 1942; Carinthian Slovene mother)
Franc Kattnig – publisher and cultural official (b. 1945)
Martin Kušej – theatre and opera director (b. 1961)
Florjan Lipuš – writer and translator (b. 1937)
Janko Messner – writer (b. 1921)
Mirko Messner – politician (b. 1948)
Valentin Oman – artist (b. 1935)
Wolfgang Petritsch – diplomat, former High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina (b. 1947)
Erik Prunč – professor at the University of Graz (b. 1941)
Johann (Janez) Strutz – professor at the University of Klagenfurt (b. 1949)
Jožef Stefan – mathematician and physicist (1835–1893)
Peter Wrolich – racing cyclist (b. 1974) Personalities

Koroška enotna lista (Kärntner Einheitsliste) – a joint political movement that stands at local elections
Narodni svet koroških Slovencev (Rat der Kärntner Slowenen) – National Council of Christian Slovenes, representing Christian-conservative interests
Zveza slovenskih organizacij (Zentralverband slowenischer Organisationen) – Association of Slovenian Organisations, association representing left-leaning interests
Krščanska kulturna zveza (Christlicher Kulturverband) – Christian Cultural association
Slovenska prosvetna zveza (Slowenischer Kulturverband) – Slovene Cultural Association
Slovenska gospodarska zveza (Slowenischer Wirtschaftsverband) – Slovene Economic Organisation
Skupnost južnokoroških kmetov (Gemeinschaft der Südkärntner Bauern) – Community of South Carinthian Farmers
Slovenska planinska Družba (Alpenverein der Kärntner Slowenen) – Alpine Climbing Club of Carinthian Slovenes
Slovenski atletski klub (Slowenischer Athletikklub) – Slovene Athletic Club
Koroška dijaška zveza (Slowenischer Studenten Verband) – Slovene Students' Association Organisations

Nedelja – Slovene-language weekly newspaper of the diocese of Gurk
Novice – Slovene-language weekly news-sheet
Mohorjeva družba-Hermagoras – Catholic bilingual publisher (Klagenfurt)
Drava Verlag – bilingual publisher (Klagenfurt) Media

Burgenland Croats
Burgenland Hungarians
Demographics of Austria
Karantanians See also

(German) Amt der Kärntner Landesregierung – Volksgruppenbüro (Hrsg.), Die Kärntner Slowenen, 2003
(German) Heinz Dieter Pohl, Die ethnisch-sprachlichen Voraussetzungen der Volksabstimmung
Bratt Paulston and D. Peckham (eds.) ''Linguistic Minorities in Central and Eastern Europe'', 1998, p. 32 ff., Clevedon (UK), Multilingual Matters, ISBN 1-85359-416-4.
(German) Bericht des Österreichischen Volksgruppenzentrums zur Durchführung des Europäischen Rahmenübereinkommens zum Schutz nationaler Minderheiten in der Republik Österreich Teil II (Accessed on 3 August 2006)
(German) Volksgruppenarchiv des ORF Kärnten (Accessed on 3 August 2006) Sources

(German) Albert F. Reiterer: ''Kärntner Slowenen: Minderheit oder Elite? Neuere Tendenzen der ethnischen Arbeitsteilung.'' Drava Verlag/Založba Drava, Klagenfurt 1996, ISBN 3-85435-252-2
(German) Andreas Moritsch (Hrsg.): ''Kärntner Slovenen/Koroški Slovenci 1900-2000'' Hermagoras/Mohorjeva, Klagenfurt 2003 ISBN 3-85013-753-8
(German) Johann Strutz: Profile der neuen slowenischen Literatur in Kärnten, by Hermagoras Verlag, Klagenfurt, 1998, ISBN 3-85013-524-1 Literature

Culture and History

2008-03-26T08:56:00.001-07:00

James Barry (October 11, 1741 – February 22, 1806), Irish painter, best remembered for his six part series of paintings entitled The Progress of Human Culture in the Great Room of the Royal Society of Arts. Because of his determination to create art according to his own principles rather than those of his patrons, he is also noted for being one of the earliest romantic painters working in Britain, though as an artist few rated him highly until the fully comprehensive 1983 exhibition at the Tate Gallery occasioned a reassessment of this "notoriously belligerent personality", who emerges as one of the most important Irish Neoclassical artists. He was also a profound influence on William Blake.

Biography

2008-03-25T09:08:00.001-07:00

The Birmingham Triennial Musical Festival, in Birmingham, England, founded in 1784, was the longest-running classical music festival of its kind. Its last performance was in 1912.

History
In 1837 Felix Mendelssohn conducted a performance of his St Paul oratorio, played the organ, and played the piano part in the premiere of his second piano concerto, specially commissioned by the Festival. He appeared in the following festival, playing his first piano concerto.
For the 1846 festival he composed and conducted the premiere of his oratorio Elijah, another new work commissioned by the Festival. He was paid 200 guineas. Elijah was played at every successive festival. Mendelssohn died a year later.

2008-03-24T08:51:00.001-07:00

The National Oceanography Centre, Southampton (NOCS) is a purpose-built, joint venture between the University of Southampton and the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC). Opened in 1996, it is one of a group of world-class centres of excellence specialising in marine science, earth science and marine technology. It is unique in providing a platform for leading interdisciplinary research alongside a comprehensive teaching facility.
The NOCS comprises the University of Southampton's School of Ocean and Earth Sciences which operates alongside four NERC research divisions and the NERC Research Ships Unit (RSU). In addition to housing some 450 research scientists and staff, over 600 undergraduate and postgraduate students call the NOCS home. The NOCS's on-site resources include the UK National Oceanographic Library, the nationally important Discovery Collections and the British Ocean Sediment Core Repository. The NOCS is also the base for the purpose-built research vessels RRS Discovery and RRS James Cook (and formerly the RRS Charles Darwin).
Prior to the 1 May 2005, NOCS was known as the Southampton Oceanography Centre (SOC). The name was changed to reflect the Centre's prominence in ocean and earth sciences within the UK.
The NOCS is located at the University of Southampton Waterfront Campus, European Way, Southampton, Hampshire SO14 3ZH, UK.

2008-03-23T08:54:00.001-07:00

The Official Languages Act of 1969 is an Act of Parliament that recognizes English and French as the official languages of Canada.
The 1988 act is a new and improved version of the Official Languages Act of 1969, an outgrowth of the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism.
The primary impact of the 1969 act was in providing federal services in both languages, where population size warranted it. Its principles were later incorporated into the Constitution of Canada, in section 16 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The act recognized both French and English languages.

See also

Bilingualism in Canada
Official Language Act (Quebec)

2008-03-22T09:41:00.001-07:00

"Clemency" redirects here. For the town, see Clemency, Luxembourg.
A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it. It is granted by a sovereign power, such as a monarch or chief of state or a competent church authority. Clemency is an associated term, meaning the lessening of the penalty of the crime without forgiving the crime itself. The act of clemency is a reprieve. Today, pardons and reprieves are granted in many countries when individuals have demonstrated that they have fulfilled their debt to society, or are otherwise deserving (in the opinion of the pardoning official) of a pardon or reprieve. Pardons are sometimes offered to persons who, it is claimed, have been wrongfully convicted. However, accepting such a pardon implicitly constitutes an admission of guilt, so in some cases the offer is refused.

Pardons and clemency by country

Pardons
In Canada, clemency is granted by the Governor-General of Canada or the Governor in Council (the federal cabinet) under the Royal Prerogative of Mercy. Applications are also made to the National Parole Board, as in pardons, but clemency may involve the commutation of a sentence, or the remission of all or part of the sentence, a respite from the sentence (for a medical condition) or a relief from a prohibition (e.g., to allow someone to drive that has been prohibited from driving).

Clemency
Pardons and acts of clemency (grâces) are granted by the President of France, who, ultimately, is the sole judge of the propriety of the measure. The convicted person sends a request for pardon to the President of the Republic. The prosecutor of the court that pronounced the verdict reports on the case, and the case goes to the Ministry of Justice's directorate of criminal affairs and pardons for further consideration.
If granted, the decree of pardon is signed by the President, the Prime Minister, the Minister of Justice and possibly other ministers involved in the consideration of the case. It is not published in the Journal Officiel.
The decree may spare the applicant from serving the balance of his or her sentence, or commute the sentence to a lesser one. It does not suppress the right for the victim of the crime to obtain compensation for the damages it suffered, and does not erase the condemnation from the criminal record.
When the death penalty was in force in France, almost all capital sentences resulted in a presidential review for a possible pardon. Sentenced criminals were routinely given a sufficient delay before execution so that their requests for pardons could be examined. If granted, clemency would usually entail a commutation to a life sentence.
The Parliament of France, on occasions, grants amnesty. This is a different concept and procedure from that described above, although the phrase "presidential amnesty" (amnistie présidentielle) is sometimes pejoratively applied to some acts of parliament traditionally voted upon after a presidential election, granting amnesty for minor crimes.

Pardons and clemency in France
Similar to the United States, the right to grant pardon in Germany is divided between the federal and the state level. Federal jurisdiction in matters of criminal law is mostly restricted to appeals against decisions of state courts. Only "political" crimes like treason or terrorism are tried on behalf the federal government by the highest state courts. Accordingly, the category of persons eligible for a federal pardon is rather narrow. The right to grant a federal pardon lies in the office of the President of Germany, but he or she can transfer this power to other persons, such as the chancellor or the minister of justice. In early 2007 there was a widespread public discussion about the granting of pardons in Germany after convicted Red Army Faction terrorist Christian Klar, serving a six times life imprisonment sentence since 1982 and not eligible for parole until at least 2009, filed a petition for pardon. President Horst Köhler ultimately denied his request. For all other (and therefore the vast majority of) convicts, pardons are in the jurisdiction of the states. In some states it is granted by the respective cabinet, but in most states the state constitution vests the authority in the state prime minister. As on the federal level, the authority may be transferred.
Amnesty can be granted only by federal law.

Pardons in Germany
The Constitution of Greece grants the power of pardon to the President of the Republic (Art. 47, § 1). He can pardon, commute or remit punishment imposed by any court, on the proposal of the Minister of Justice and after receiving the opinion (not the consent necessarily) of the Pardon Committee.

Pardons in Greece
Prior to the handover of Hong Kong to China in 1997, the power of pardon was a royal prerogative of mercy of the monarch of the United Kingdom. This was used and cited the most often just prior to the handover from British to Chinese rule from inmates who had been given the death penalty (which was abolished in 1993) and did not have an alternative sentence from the court, and they, therefore, requested the Queen to exercise her power of mercy.
Since the handover, the Chief Executive of Hong Kong now exercises the power to grant pardons and commute penalties under HK Laws. Chap 211 Criminal Procedure Ordinance, Sec, 118 Saving of prerogative of mercy.

Pardons and clemency in Hong Kong
In the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Supreme Leader has the power to pardon and offer clemency under Article 110, § 1, §§ 11.

Pardons in Islamic Republic of Iran
Under the Constitution of Ireland Art 13 Sec 6 the President of Ireland can pardon convicted criminals "The right of pardon and the power to commute or remit punishment imposed by any court exercising criminal jurisdiction are hereby vested in the President, but such power of commutation or remission may also be conferred by law on other authorities". However this is only after the consent of the Government of Ireland has been granted. The President cannot pardon people without the Government's consent; to do so would spark a constitutional crisis that may lead to the impeachment of the president.

Pardons in Ireland
In Italy the President of the Republic can " ... grant pardons, or commute punishments ...", art. 87 of the Italian constitution. However, " ... no acts of the President can came into force unless they are signed also by the Minister they are proposed by ... ", art. 89 of the Italian Constitution. Concerning to the pardon, the proposing Minister must be the Minister of Justice, as we can understand by reading art 681 c.p.p. . The problem, at this moment, is related to the exact interpretation of the two articles of the Italian Constitution reminded above: do all of the acts of the President need a proposal and a sign of a Minister? or there are some acts that the President can take by himself, without any conditioning?. In other words, there are three different theories about the pardon in Italy:
The problem has been examined by the Constitutional Court of Italy, that ruled that the first theory is the correct one (the Minister of Justice is obliged to sign the act).
The Minister of Justice, nowadays, aided by his offices, collects information about the condemned to make a correct pardon purpose. With the pardon decree, President can either extinguish the punishment, or change kind of punishment in another one permitted by law. Pardon, unless is said otherwise in the decree, can't remove all the effects of a penal sentence (like the mention in the certificate of conduct), in fact, it extinguishes only the main punishment (prison or pecuniary sanction), 174 c.p.

President can take the pardon decree without any conditioning, and the Minister of Justice is obliged to sign the act.
President and Minister of Justice must agree to take the decree.
President is obliged to take the decree, simply by signing the Minister's proposal. Pardons in Italy
The President of the Russian Federation is granted the right of pardon by Article 89 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation. The Pardon Committee manages lists of people eligible for pardon and directs them to the President for signing. While President Boris Yeltsin frequently used his power of pardon, his successor Vladimir Putin is much more hesitant; in recent years he has not used pardon at all.

Pardons in Russia
Under section 84(2)(j) of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996 (Act 108 of 1996), the President of the Republic of South Africa is responsible for pardoning or reprieving offenders. This power of the President is only exercised in highly exceptional cases.
To pardon a person is to forgive a person for his/her deeds. The pardon process is therefore not available to persons who maintain their innocence and is not an advanced form of appeal procedure.
Pardon is only granted for minor offences after a period of 10 years has elapsed since the relevant conviction.
For many serious offences (for example if the relevant court viewed the offence in such a serious light that direct imprisonment was imposed) pardon will not be granted even if more than 10 years have elapsed since the conviction.

Pardons in South Africa
A clearance certificate, must be obtained; this can be done at the nearest police station, from where the application will be sent to the Criminal Record Centre, and the certificate will be either mailed, or delivered to the police station concerned. A letter is then sent to the Department of Justice, Private Bag X81, Pretoria stating that it is an application for presidential pardon. A response can be expected within three months acknowledging receipt thereof, with attached forms from an Administrative Secretary of the Ministry of Justice and Constitutional Development. The process continues by completing and returning the application form.

Process for Application For Presidential Pardon
The power to grant pardons and reprieves is a royal prerogative of mercy of the monarch of the United Kingdom. It was traditionally in the absolute power of the monarch to pardon and release an individual who had been convicted of a crime from that conviction and its intended penalty. Pardons were granted to many in the 18th century on condition that the convicted felons accept transportation overseas, such as to Australia. The first General Pardon in England was issued in celebration of the coronation of Edward III in 1327. In 2006 all British soldiers executed for cowardice during World War I were pardoned, resolving a long-running controversy about the justice of their executions. (See Armed Forces Act 2006, [1].)
There are significant procedural differences in the present use of the royal pardon, however. Today the monarch may only grant a pardon on the advice of the Home Secretary or the First Minister of Scotland (or the Defence Secretary in military justice cases), and the policy of the Home Office and Scottish Executive is only to grant pardons to those who are "morally" innocent of the offence (as opposed to those who may have been wrongly convicted by misapplication of the law). Pardons are generally no longer issued prior to conviction, but only after conviction. A pardon is no longer considered to remove the conviction itself, but only removes the penalty which was imposed. Use of the prerogative is now rare, particularly since the establishment of the Criminal Cases Review Commission and Scottish Criminal Cases Review Commission, which provide a statutory remedy for miscarriages of justice.
According to the Act of Settlement a pardon can not prevent a person from being impeached by Parliament, but may rescind the penalty following conviction. In England and Wales nobody may be pardoned for an offence under section 11 of the Habeas Corpus Act 1679 (unlawfully transporting prisoners out of England and Wales).[2]

Pardons and clemency in the United States
In Christian theology, a pardon is the result of forgiveness, extended by God through Jesus. A pardoned person is forgiven their sins, and thus experiences new birth, or is born again. For more information, see:

Atonement
Atonement (Governmental view)
Confession
Sin
Substitutionary atonement

2008-03-21T08:16:00.001-07:00

Historical coins and banknotes of Poland, see also Polish złoty.

Post WWII

2008-03-20T08:03:00.001-07:00

The Pampas (from Quechua, meaning "plain") are the fertile South American lowlands that include the Argentine provinces of Buenos Aires, La Pampa, Santa Fe, and Córdoba, most of Uruguay, and the southernmost end of Brazil, Rio Grande do Sul, covering more than 750,000 km² (290,000 square miles). These vast plains are only interrupted by the low Ventania and Tandilia mountain ranges near Bahía Blanca and Tandil(Argentina), with 1,300 m height and 500m respectively. The climate is mild, with precipitation of 600 to 1,200 mm, more or less evenly distributed through the year, making the soils appropriate for agriculture.
Frequent fires ensure that only small plants such as grasses flourish and trees are exceptional. The dominant vegetation types are grassy prairie and grass steppe in which numerous species of the grass genus Stipa are particularly conspicuous. "Pampas Grass" (Cortaderia selloana) is an iconic species of the Pampas. Vegetation typically includes perennial grasses and herbs. Different strata of grasses occur due to gradients of water availability. The Pampas are home to a wide variety of native species, although there is an almost absolute lack of native trees, except along main watercourses.
The World Wildlife Fund divides the Pampa into three distinct ecoregions. The Uruguayan savanna lies west of the Uruguay River, and includes all of Uruguay and the southern portion of Brazil's state of Rio Grande do Sul. The Humid Pampas includes western Buenos Aires Province, and southern Entre Rios Province. The Semi-arid Pampas includes eastern Buenos Aires Province and adjacent portions of Santa Fe, Cordoba, and La Pampa provinces. The Pampas are bounded by the drier Argentine espinal grasslands, which form a semi-circle around the north, east, and south of the Humid Pampas.
Its climate, as in the mid-latitudes, is naturally changeable. Winters are cool to mild and summers are very warm and humid. Rainfall is fairly uniform throughout the year but is a little heavier during the summer. Annual rainfall is heaviest near the coast and decreases gradually further inland. Rain during the late spring and summer usually arrives in the form of brief heavy showers and thunderstorms. More general rainfall occurs the remainder of the year as cold fronts and storm systems move through. Although cold spells during the winter often send nighttime temperatures below freezing, snow is quite rare. In most winters, a few light snowfalls occur over inland areas. Snow is extremely rare near the river's coast (the so called Litoral).
Central Argentina boasts a successful agricultural business, with crops grown on the Pampas south and west of the Buenos Aires. In particular, the harvested area of soybeans is on pace to set a record, according to the Food and Agricultural Service. Much of the area is also used for grazing cattle. These farming regions (i.e., modified of disturbed Pampas) are particularly susceptible to flooding during heavy rainfall. In October 2001 an estimated 35,000 km² of the pampas were flooded. Buenos Aires reported nearly 250 mm (9.84 in) of rainfall during that month, which is more than double the normal amount.

2008-03-19T08:19:00.001-07:00

The historic University of Paris (French: Université de Paris) first appeared in the second half of the 12th century, but was in 1970 reorganised as 13 autonomous universities (University of Paris I–XIII). The university is often referred to as the Sorbonne or La Sorbonne after the collegiate institution (Collège de Sorbonne) founded about 1257 by Robert de Sorbon, but the university as such is older and was never completely centred on the Sorbonne. Of the 13 current successor universities, the first four have a presence in Sorbonne, and three include Sorbonne in their names.
The 13 universities still stand under a common chancellor, the Rector of the Académie of Paris, with offices in the Sorbonne. As of 2006, the Rector of the Academy of Paris and Chancellor of the Universities of Paris is Maurice Quénet. The Vice-Chancellor of the Universities of Paris is Pierre Gregory. [1] [2].
The University of Paris remains one of the most famous and prestigious of universities in the world

The original schools
In 1200, King Philip II issued a diploma "for the security of the scholars of Paris" that made the students subject only to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The provost and other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for any offence, unless this was done to hand over the culprit to ecclesiastical authority, for in the event of grave crime royal justice was limited to taking cognizance of the procedure and the verdict. The king's officers could never lay hands on the head of the schools or even on a simple region unless they had a mandate from an ecclesiastical authority. This action was motivated at least in part by a violent incident between students and officers outside the city walls at a pub.
In 1215, the statues of the Apostolic legate, Robert de Courçon, dealt with three principal points regarding the moral and intellectual part of university instruction: the conditions of the professorate, the matter to be treated, and the granting of the license. To teach the arts it was necessary to have reached the age of twenty-one, after having studied these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement as professor for at least two years. For a chair in theology the candidate had to be thirty years of age with eight years of theological studies, of which the last three years were devoted to special courses of lectures in preparation for the mastership. These studies had to be made in the local schools and under the direction of a master, for at Paris one was not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular master. Lastly, purity of morals was as important as reading. Priscian's "Grammar", Aristotle's "Dialectics", mathematics, astronomy, music, certain books of rhetoric and philosophy were the subjects taught in the arts course; to these might be added the Ethics of the Stagyrite and the fourth book of the Topics. But it was forbidden to read the books of Aristotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations of them. The licence was granted, according to custom, gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in defence of their rights, when they could not otherwise obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made either of law or of medicine, probably because these sciences were less prominent.
In 1229, a denial of justice by the queen led to suspension of the courses (see University of Paris strike of 1229). The pope intervened with a Bull that began with lavish praise of the university: "Paris", said Gregory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He compared it to a laboratory in which wisdom tested the metals which she found there, gold and silver to adorn the Spouse of Jesus Christ, iron to fashion the spiritual sword which should smite the inimical powers. He commissioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Senlis and the Archdeacon of Châlons to negotiate with the French Court for the restoration of the university. The year 1230 came to an end without any result, and Gregory IX took the matter directly in hand by a Bull of 1231 addressed to the masters and scholars of Paris. Not content with settling the dispute and giving guarantees for the future, he empowered the university to frame statutes concerning the discipline of the schools, the method of instruction, the defence of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obsequies of masters and students (expanding upon Robert de Courçon's statutes). Most importantly, the pope recognized in the university or granted it the right to suspend its courses, if justice were denied it, until it should receive full satisfaction.
In the schools of Paris, the general rule was that the granting of licence was gratuitous and instruction was also free. However, it was often necessary to depart from the rule. Thus the pope authorized Pierre Le Mangeur to levy a moderate fee for the conferring of the licence. Similar fees were exacted for the first degree in arts and letters, and the scholars were taxed two sous weekly, to be deposited in the common fund.

Organization in the thirteenth century
The university was organized as follows: at the head of the teaching body was a rector. The office was elective and of short duration; at first it was limited to four or six weeks. Simon de Brion, legate of the Holy See in France, realizing that such frequent changes caused serious inconvenience, decided that the rectorate should last three months, and this rule was observed for three years. Then the term was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three years. The right of election belonged to the procurators of the four nations.

The Rector
The "Nations" appeared in the second half of the twelfth century; they were mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222 and in that of Gregory IX in 1231; later they formed a distinct body. In 1249 the four nations existed with their procurators, their rights (more or less well-defined), and their keen rivalries; and in 1254, in the heat of the controversy between the university and the mendicant orders, a letter was addressed to the pope bearing the seals of the four nations. These were the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After the Hundred Years' War the English nation was replaced by the Germanic or German. The four nations constituted the faculty of arts or letters. The expression "faculty", though of ancient usage, did not mean what it does in modern American English; instead, it indicated a division by subject within the university (as it still does in British English). In a Bull of Gregory IX the word is used to designate the professional body, and it may have had the same meaning in a university Act of 1221 (cf. "Hist. Universitatis Parisiensis", III, 106).

The four nations
To classify professors' knowledge, the schools of Paris divided into faculties. These arose gradually and consequently no precise account of their origin can be given. Professors of the same science were brought into closer contact until the community of rights and interests cemented the union and made them distinct groups, which at the same time remained integral parts of the teaching body. The faculty of medicine seems to have been the last to form. But the four faculties were already formally designated in a letter addressed in Feb., 1254, by the university to the prelates of Christendom, wherein mention is made of "theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy". In the celebrated Bull "Quasi Lignum" (April, 1255), Pope Alexander IV speaks of "the faculties of theology" of other "faculties", namely those of canonists, physicians, and artists. The masters of theology often set the example for the other faculties, e.g. they were the first to adopt an official seal.
The faculties of theology, or canon law, and medicine, were called "superior faculties". The title of "Dean" as designating the head of a faculty, was not in use until the second half of the thirteenth century. This habit seems to have started in the faculties of decretals and medicine, followed by the faculty of theology, for in authentic acts of 1268 we read of the deans of decretals and medicine, while the dean of theology is not mentioned until 1296. It seems that at first the deans were the oldest masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four procurators of its four nations and its head was the rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, the division into four nations partially disappeared for theology, decretals and medicine, though it continued in arts. Eventually the superior faculties were to include only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the nations. At this period, therefore, the university had two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the doctorate. It was not until much later that the licentiate, while retaining its early character, became an intermediate degree: Besides, the university numbered among its members beadles and messengers, who also performed the duties of clerks.

Faculties
The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris often made lodging difficult. Some students rented rooms from townspeople, who often exacted high rates while the students demanded lower. This tension between scholars and citizens would have developed into a sort of civil war if Robert de Courçon had not found the remedy of taxation. It was upheld in the Bull of Gregory IX of 1231, but with an important modification: its exercise was to be shared with the citizens. The aim was to offer the students a shelter where they would fear neither annoyance from the owners nor the dangers of the world. Thus were founded the colleges (colligere, to assemble); these were not usually centers of instruction, but simple student boarding-houses. Each had a special object, being established for students of the same nationality or the same science. They also enabled students to use their time more wisely, under the guidance sometimes of resident masters and out of the way of dissipation.
Four colleges appeared in the twelfth century; they became more numerous in the thirteenth, including Collège d'Harcourt (1280) and the Collège de Sorbonne (1257). Thus the University of Paris, which in general was the model for other universities, assumed its basic form. It was composed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty of arts, and the three superior faculties of theology, law, and medicine. Ecclesiastical dignities, even abroad, seemed reserved for the masters and students of Paris. This preference became a general rule, and eventually a right, that of eligibility to benefices. Church officials lavishly praised the university: St. Louis, in the diploma which he granted to the Carthusians for their establishment near Paris, speaks of this city, where "flow the most abundant waters of wholesome doctrine, so that they become a great river which after refreshing the city itself irrigates the Universal Church". Clement IV uses a no less charming comparison: "the noble and renowned city, the city which is the source of learning and sheds over the world a light which seems an image of the celestial splendour; those who are taught there shine brilliantly, and those who teach there will shine with the stars for all eternity" (cf. César-Egasse du Boulay, "Hist. Univers. Paris", III, 360-71).
Besides the famous Collège de Sorbonne, other collegia provided housing and meals to students, sometimes for those of the same geographical origin in a more restricted sense than that represented by the nations. There were 8 or 9 collegia for foreign students: the oldest one was the Danish college, the Collegium danicum or dacicum, founded in 1257. Swedish students could, during the 13 and 14th centuries, live in one of three Swedish colleges, the Collegium Upsaliense, the Collegium Scarense or the Collegium Lincopense, named after the Swedish dioceses of Uppsala, Skara and Linköping, the cathedral schools of which the scholars had presumably attended before travelling to Paris. The German College, Collegium alemanicum is mentioned as early as 1345, the Scottish college or Collegium scoticum was founded in 1325. The Lombard college or Collegium lombardicum was founded in the 1330s. The Collegium constantinopolitanum was, according to a tradition, founded in the 13th century to facilitate a merging of the eastern and western churches. It was later reorganized as a French institution, the Collège de la Marche-Winville. The Collège de Montaigu was founded by the Archbishop of Rouen in the 14th century, and reformed in the 15th century by the humanist Jan Standonck, when it attracted reformers from within the Roman Catholic Church (such as Erasmus and Loyola) and those who subsequently became Protestants (John Calvin and John Knox).

Colleges
In the fifteenth century, Guillaume d'Estouteville, a cardinal and Apostolic legate, carried out a project to reform the university, correcting its abuses and introducing various needed modifications. This reform was less an innovation than a recall to the better observance of the old rules, as was the reform of 1600, undertaken by the royal government, with regard to the three superior faculties. However, as to the faculty of arts, the reform of 1600 introduced the study of Greek, of the French poets and orators, and of additional classical figures like Hesiod, Plato, Demosthenes, Cicero, Virgil, and Sallust. The prohibition to teach civil law was never well observed at Paris, but in 1679 Louis XIV authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty of decretals. Thus, the name "faculty of law" replaced that of "faculty of decretals". The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was fatal to these establishments, but the university set about remedying the injury.
Remarkable for its teaching, the University of Paris played an important part: in the Church, during the Great Schism; in the councils, in dealing with heresies and deplorable divisions; in the State, during national crises; and though under the domination of England it dishonoured itself in the trial of Joan of Arc, it rehabilitated itself by rehabilitating Joan. Proud of its rights and privileges, it fought energetically to maintain them, hence the long struggle against the mendicant orders on academic as well as on religious grounds. Hence also the shorter conflict against the Jesuits, who claimed by word and action a share in its teaching. It made liberal use of its right to decide administratively according to occasion and necessity. In some instances it openly endorsed the censures of the faculty of theology and pronounced condemnation in its own name, as in the case of the Flagellants.
Its patriotism was especially manifested on two occasions. During the captivity of King John, when Paris was given over to factions, the university sought to restore peace; and under Louis XIV, when the Spaniards crossed the Somme and threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts degree gratuitously to scholars who should present certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, Hist. de l'Univers. de Paris au XVIIe et XVIIIe siècle, 132-34; Archiv. du ministère de l'instruction publique).

Later history
The ancient university disappeared with ancient France under the Revolution. On 15 Sept., 1793, petitioned by the Department of Paris and several departmental groups, the National Convention decided that independently of the primary schools, "there should be established in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruction; the first for the knowledge indispensable to artisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further knowledge necessary to those intending to embrace the other professions of society; and the third for those branches of instruction the study of which is not within the reach of all men". Measures were to be taken immediately: "For means of execution the department and the municipality of Paris are authorized to consult with the Committee of Public Instruction of the National Convention, in order that these establishments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and consequently colleges now in operation and the faculties of theology, medicine, arts, and law are suppressed throughout the Republic". This was the death-sentence of the university. It was not to be restored after the Revolution had subsided, any more than those of the provinces. All were replaced by a single centre, the University of France. After a century (in 1896), people recognized that the new system was less favourable to study and restored the old system, but without the faculty of theology.

Suppression of the colleges and establishment of the University of France
In 1968 it was the starting point of the cultural revolution commonly known as "the French May" (see also Situationist International), resulting in the closing of the university for only the third time in history (the first one in 1229 and the second having been the invasion by the German army of 1940).
The University of Paris has since been reorganised into several autonomous universities and schools, some of which still carry the Sorbonne name. The historical campus, located in the Quartier Latin, in the 5th arrondissement of Paris, featuring mural paintings by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes, was split for use between several of the universities of Paris and the Rector's services.
La Sorbonne was occupied again in March 2006 as part of country-wide protests against the introduction of the CPE (first employment contract).

Student revolt and reorganisation
The present thirteen Universities are:
Paris IX's long name is Université de technologie en sciences des organisations et de la décision de Paris-Dauphine.

See also

André Tuilier: Histoire de l'Université de Paris et de la Sorbonne ("History of the University of Paris and of the Sorbonne"), in 2 volumes (From the Origins to Richelieu, From Louis XIV to the Crisis of 1968), Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France, 1997 ;
Jean-Louis Leutrat: De l'Université aux Universités ("From the University to the Universities"), Paris: Association des Universités de Paris, 1997
Philippe Rive: La Sorbonne et sa reconstruction ("The Sorbonne and its Reconstruction"), Lyon: La Manufacture, 1987
Jacques Verger: Histoire des Universités en France ("History of French Universities"), Toulouse: Editions Privat, 1986

2008-03-18T10:44:00.001-07:00

Hugo F. Sonnenschein is a prominent American economist and educational administrator. Currently the Adam Smith Distinguished Service Professor in Economics at the University of Chicago, his specialty is microeconomic theory; with a particular interest in game theory. He served as the 11th president of the University of Chicago (1993-2000), and remains a member of the university's Board of Trustees. Previously, he served as Provost of Princeton University and Dean of the School of Arts and Sciences at the University of Pennsylvania. Sonnenschein attended the University of Rochester for his undergraduate studies, and received his Ph.D. in Economics from Purdue University in 1964. He is known for the Sonnenschein-Mantel-Debreu Theorem.

2008-03-17T08:27:00.001-07:00

For the book see the article K-PAX.
K-PAX (2001) is a mystery and/or sci-fi drama about a mental patient who claims he is an alien. During his treatment, the patient/alien, prot ("rhymes with 'goat' and is not capitalized"), demonstrates an outlook on life that ultimately proves inspirational for his fellow patients and especially for his psychiatrist. The movie was based on a novel of the same name, itself similar to the 1986 Argentinian film Man Facing Southeast directed by Eliseo Subiela. It also bears striking similarities to the 1995 film Eyes Beyond Seeing in which an enigmatic mental patient played by Keith Hamilton Cobb claims to be Jesus.

Plot summary
The story opens with a man who calls himself "prot" (Kevin Spacey) who mysteriously appears in New York City's Grand Central Terminal. When he claims he is an alien from a planet called 'K-PAX', prot is handed over to a New York hospital psychiatric ward. A Manhattan psychiatrist, Mark Powell (played by Jeff Bridges), is given the task of treating and "curing" prot of his supposed delusions. Right from the first psychiatric session, Dr. Powell begins to discover prot's uncanny abilities and immense knowledge. As the story develops, Dr. Powell becomes quite attached to prot, and starts to believe his seemingly ridiculous claims. He even manages to baffle some of the foremost astrophysicists with his knowledge of astronomy.
Once prot displays violent behavior at Dr. Powell's house, the latter decides to regress him to find out more about prot's past. Because prot has promised he will leave Earth on July 27, it's a race against time for Dr. Powell to find out the real identity behind the enigmatic prot.
The film does not explicitly state who or what prot really is.

2008-03-16T08:17:00.001-07:00

Pierre Bourgault (January 23, 1934 – June 16, 2003) was a politician and essayist in Quebec, Canada, and a public speaker who advocated sovereignty for Quebec from Canada.

Profile
Bourgault (pronounced Bour-go) was born in East Angus in the Estrie (Eastern Townships) region of Quebec. He is sometimes said to have been an albino but this is disputed: pictures taken in his youth show him with dark hair and eyebrows; "albino" was used as a nickname for him by his friends. His parents sent him to boarding school at age 7, determined that he should receive the education which they lacked.
Beginning in the early 1960s, he supported Quebec independence from Canada and in 1960 helped found the pro-independence Rassemblement pour l'indépendance nationale. He participated a number of union strikes and marches that resulted in violence. In 1964, he became leader of the RIN. In 1968, he disbanded the RIN and invited its members to join René Lévesque's Mouvement Souveraineté-Association and the Ralliement national in the newly founded Parti Québécois, under Lévesque's leadership. During the St. Jean Baptiste celebration in 1968, he and other supporters rioted and threw objects in the direction of Pierre Trudeau. He and 300 others were arrested for this incident. However, Bourgault himself did not play any role in the PQ government that came to power in the 1976 Quebec provincial election, and often quarreled with Lévesque before leaving the PQ in the 1980s. Some say that he sacrificed his own political career to unite pro-sovereignty forces.
In his early life, he was a journalist at Montreal newspaper La Presse, and he returned to this in the 1990s as a columnist for Le Journal de Montréal newspaper. After 1976, he was a professor of communications at the Université du Québec à Montréal (UQAM). He was also the co-host or regular columnist of several radio shows aired on la Société Radio-Canada, the French language sector of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. In 1996, he wrote a column in the Le Journal de Montréal calling the Jewish community "racist" for overwhelmingly voting against Quebec separation from Canada in the 1995 Quebec referendum.
He was non-religious to the point of atheism, and despite their political differences, had a solid friendship with Robert Bourassa. An ardent defender of the French language, even against joual, he received the Prix Georges-Émile-Lapalme in 1997.
He once estimated that he had given 4,000 speeches in his life, which are however mostly lost to posterity since he did not write them down.
He was openly gay, though he said in an interview for Radio-Canada a few years before his death that in his later years he chose to stop having sexual relations.

2008-03-14T09:43:00.001-07:00

Harold Elliot Varmus (b. December 18, 1939) is an American Nobel prize winning scientist. He was a co-recipient (along with J. Michael Bishop) of the 1989 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for discovery of the cellular origin of retroviral oncogenes.
Varmus was born to Jewish parents of Eastern European descent in Freeport, New York . He is co-founder and chairman of the board of directors of the Public Library of Science, a not-for-profit open access publisher. He currently serves on the advisory boards of the Campaign to Defend the Constitution, an organization dedicated to opposing the religious right, and Scientists and Engineers for America, an organization focused on promoting sound science in American government.
He is also a recipient of 2001 National Medal of Science
Varmus, an avid bicyclist, runner, rower, and fisherman, has been married to Constance Casey since 1969 and has two sons, Jacob and Christopher.

2008-03-13T08:21:00.001-07:00

David Harold Franzoni (b. 4 March 1947) is an American screenwriter. His most well known movie scripts include: King Arthur, Gladiator, Amistad, and Jumpin' Jack Flash.

2008-03-12T08:37:00.001-07:00

History
Lebanon's first coins were issued in 1924 in denominations of 2 and 5 girush (note the different spelling to post WWII coins) with the French denominations given in "piastres syriennes" (Syrian piastres). Later issues did not include the word "syriennes" and were in denominations of ½, 1, 2, 2½, 5, 10, 25 and 50 girsha. During World War II, rather crude ½, 1 and 2½ girsh coins were issued.
After the war, the Arabic spelling was changed from girsh (غرش) to qirsh (قرش). Coins were issued in the period 1952 to 1986 in denominations of 1, 2½, 5, 10, 25 and 50 qirsh and 1 lira. No coins were issued between 1986 and 1996, when the current series of coins was introduced. Coins in current use [3] are

50 lira
100 lira
250 lira
500 lira Banknotes

Economy of Lebanon